Accuracy of clinical observations of push-off during gait after stroke

OBJECTIVE: To determine the accuracy (criterion-related validity) of real-time clinical observations of push-off in gait after stroke. DESIGN: Criterion-related validity study of gait observations. SETTING: Rehabilitation hospital in Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Eleven participants with stroke and 8 treating physical therapists. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Pearson product-moment correlation between physical therapists' observations of push-off during gait and criterion measures of peak ankle power generation from a 3-dimensional motion analysis system. RESULTS: A high correlation was obtained between the observational ratings and the measurements of peak ankle power generation (Pearson r =.98). The standard error of estimation of ankle power generation was .32W/kg. CONCLUSIONS: Physical therapists can make accurate real-time clinical observations of push-off during gait following stroke.     

步态诱发功能性电刺激对脑卒中后足下垂患者步态时空参数的影响

目的:采用步态分析,观察步态诱发功能性电刺激对脑卒中后足下垂患者步态时空参数的影响.方法:选择40例符合入选标准的脑卒中后足下垂患者,随机分组到实验组和对照组,均给予常规药物治疗及基本常规康复训练.实验组在此治疗基础上采用给予患侧下肢步态诱发功能性电刺激,根据患者踝关节背伸、内翻程度调节正负电极片位置及具体适应的刺激量30min/次,1次/d,每周6次,共3周.对照组在治疗期间不给予任何电刺激.采用三维步态分析仪器分别于治疗前、治疗3周后检测并获取两组患者步态参数.结果:治疗3周后,两组患者步速、步幅、步频、健侧摆动相均较治疗前明显均提高(P＜0.05),步态周期、步宽、双支撑相、患侧摆动相、健侧支撑相、患侧支撑相均较治疗前显著减小(P＜0.05).组间比较显示,治疗组患者的步行速度、步幅、步频、步行周期、步宽、双支撑相、改善程度均明显优于对照组(P＜0.05).两组患者对称性步态参数治疗前后差异显著,且实验组改善程度显著优于对照组(P＜0.05).结论:步态诱发功能性电刺激治疗能有效改善脑卒中后足下垂患者步速、步频、步行周期等时空参数,提高脑卒中后足下垂患者的步行能力及步态的对称性.     

步态诱发功能性电刺激对脑卒中足下垂患者的疗效观察

目的:观察应用低频脉冲电刺激治疗脑卒中后足下垂患者的疗效。方法:对30例脑卒中后导致足下垂的患者,在常规药物治疗、康复治疗的基础上,每天采用低频电子脉冲刺激仪对患侧腓总神经、胫前肌进行电刺激治疗,每天2次,其中第一次为训练模式,只进行患侧胫前肌的神经肌肉电刺激治疗20min;第二次在同样NMFS的同时进行步行训练15—20min。每周5—6d,共2周。治疗前先使用神经肌肉定位仪找准敏感位置,然后将阴极至于敏感部位(腓总神经),阳极至于合适部位(胫前肌)。分别在治疗前、治疗1周、2周行下肢步行功能的评定,分别测定不戴和佩戴刺激仪的StepTest评定、10m最大步行速度测试、上下8个台阶时间、生理耗能指数。结果:治疗2周后与治疗前比较,患者下肢步行功能有明显改善,佩戴刺激仪步行时可即刻明显提高脑卒中后足下垂患者的步速、体位转移能力、上下楼梯能力及降低生理耗能(P<0.05—0.001)。结论:低频脉冲电刺激能改善脑卒中患者步行功能,佩戴低频电子脉冲刺激仪步行时可即刻明显提高患者的步速、体位转移能力、上下楼梯能力及降低生理耗能,而且无明显不良反应,是一种安全有效的训练仪器。     

Trunk performance after stroke and the relationship with balance, gait and functional ability

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate trunk performance in non-acute and chronic stroke patients by means of the Trunk Control Test and Trunk Impairment Scale and to compare the Trunk Control Test with the Trunk Impairment Scale and its subscales in relation to balance, gait and functional ability after stroke. Subjects: Fifty-one stroke patients, attending a rehabilitation programme, participated in the study. MAIN MEASURES: Subjects were evaluated with the Trunk Control Test, Trunk Impairment Scale, Tnetti balance and gait subscales, Functional Ambulation Category, 10-m walk test, Timed Up and Go Test and motor part of the Functional Independence Measure. RESULTS: Participants obtained a median score of 61 out of 100 on the Trunk Control Test and 11 out of 23 for the Trunk Impairment Scale. Twelve participants (24%) obtained the maximum score on the Trunk Control Test; no subject reached the maximum score on the Trunk Impairment Scale. Measures of trunk performance were significantly related with values of balance, gait and functional ability. Multivariate linear regression analysis showed an additional, significant contribution of the dynamic sitting balance subscale of the Trunk Impairment Scale in addition to the Trunk Control Test total score for measures of gait and functional ability (model R2 = 0.55-0.62). CONCLUSIONS: This study clearly indicates that trunk performance is still impaired in non-acute and chronic stroke patients. When planning future follow-up studies, use of the Trunk Impairment Scale has the advantage that it has no ceiling effect.     

Performance of an intramuscular electrode during functional neuromuscular stimulation for gait training post stroke.

The goal of rehabilitation for stroke patients in this research was to improve the volitional coordination of the swing phase and stance phases of gait. Functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) is a promising rehabilitation tool for restoring motor control. For our gait training protocols, FNS systems with surface electrodes were impractical. For the rehabilitation protocols that we defined, available implantable electrode designs did not meet desired criteria regarding fracture rate, invasiveness of placement procedures, and maintenance of position at the motor point. The criteria for the new intramuscular (IM) electrode design included minimally invasive electrode placement technique, accurate placement of electrodes, good muscle selectivity, consistency of muscle activation, good position maintenance of the electrode at the motor point, comfortable stimulus, and practical donning time for the system. A percutaneous electrode was designed for placement beneath the skin at the motor point of seven paralyzed or paretic muscles in the lower limb. A single-helical coil lead, a double-helical coil electrode, and fine wire barbs were design features that enhanced the anchoring capability of the electrode. A polypropylene core enhanced electrode durability. Implantation tools were custom-designed to enable accurate electrode placement without incision. We studied 17 subjects with a total of 124 electrodes. With the use of IM electrodes, FNS was provided for 1,413.8 electrode months. During this time, no instances of infection occurred. The measure of electrode integrity showed a 99% electrode survival rate. Throughout the treatment protocols, 93% of the electrodes delivered a good muscle response; 7% (nine electrodes) moved from the motor point and delivered a poor muscle response during the treatment protocol. Anchoring performance was higher for electrodes implanted in muscles that moved the hip (96.0%) and ankle joints (97.45%) compared with electrodes implanted in muscles that moved the knee joint (88.5%). Ninety-seven percent of the electrodes delivered a comfortable stimulus. Three percent delivered a stimulus that was uncomfortable at therapeutic levels and therefore were not used. We achieved gains in subject impairment and disability measures. The system proved to be practical for use in both clinical and home environments.     

Reliability of a road test after stroke

OBJECTIVE: To determine the reliability of the road test performed by stroke patients. DESIGN: Prospective study of a 6-month predriving evaluation. SETTING: Driving safety center in Belgium. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty patients with sequelae of stroke. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Results of driving performance as judged by 2 assessors from the Center for Determination of Fitness to Drive and Car Adaptations (CARA), in a car fitted with a video camera. A third assessor also evaluated all the video recordings. Interrater reliability was evaluated by comparing results from real-life performance and video recording, as judged by the CARA assessors and video judgments between CARA assessors and the third assessor. RESULTS: Most subitems of the road test showed more than 80% scoring agreement between the various evaluations. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) of the items varied from -.08 to 1.0. The ICC of the overall performance was.62 when real-life scores were compared with video evaluations and.80 in video versus video comparison. CONCLUSION: The reliability of assessing overall performance of stroke patients in the road test is moderately high and better when assessed using the same evidence. Yet, the reliability of some items needs further attention.     

Effects of conventional overground gait training and a gait trainer with partial body weight support on spatiotemporal gait parameters of patients after stroke

[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to confirm the effects of both conventional overground gait training (CGT) and a gait trainer with partial body weight support (GTBWS) on spatiotemporal gait parameters of patients with hemiparesis following chronic stroke. [Subjects and Methods] Thirty stroke patients were alternately assigned to one of two treatment groups, and both groups underwent CGT and GTBWS. [Results] The functional ambulation classification on the affected side improved significantly in the CGT and GTBWS groups. Walking speed also improved significantly in both groups. [Conclusion] These results suggest that the GTBWS in company with CGT may be, in part, an effective method of gait training for restoring gait ability in patients after a stroke.Key words: Gait training, Spatiotemporal gait parameters, Stroke patients     

Rehabilitation of gait after stroke: a review towards a top-down approach

Background

Approximately 60% of stroke survivors experience hand dysfunction limiting execution of daily activities. Several methods have been proposed to objectively quantify fingers' joints range of motion (ROM), while few studies exist about multi-finger coordination during hand movements. The present work analysed this aspect, by providing a complete characterization of spatial and temporal aspects of hand movement, through the mathematical modelling of multi-joint finger motion in healthy subjects and stroke patients.

Methods

Hand opening and closing movements were examined in 12 healthy volunteers and 14 hemiplegic stroke survivors by means of optoelectronic kinematic analysis. The flexion/extension angles of metacarpophalangeal (MCPJ) and proximal interphalangeal joints (IPJ) of all fingers were computed and mathematically characterized by a four-parameter hyperbolic tangent function. Accuracy of the selected model was analysed by means of coefficient of determination (R²) and root mean square error (RMSE). Test-retest reliability was quantified by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and test-retest errors. Comparison between performances of healthy controls and stroke subjects were performed by analysing possible differences in parameters describing angular and temporal aspects of hand kinematics and inter-joint, inter-digit coordination.

Results

The angular profiles of hand opening and closing were accurately characterized by the selected model, both in healthy controls and in stroke subjects (R² > 0.973, RMSE < 2.0°). Test-retest reliability was found to be excellent, with ICC > 0.75 and remarking errors comparable to those obtained with other methods. Comparison with healthy controls revealed that hemiparetic hand movement was impaired not only in joints ROM but also in the temporal aspects of motion: peak velocities were significantly decreased, inter-digit coordination was reduced of more than 50% and inter-joint coordination patterns were highly disrupted. In particular, the stereotypical proximal-to-distal opening sequence (reversed during hand closing) found in healthy subjects, was altered in stroke subjects who showed abnormally high delay between IPJ and MCPJ movement or reversed moving sequences.

Conclusions

The proposed method has proven to be a promising tool for a complete objective characterization of spatial and temporal aspects of hand movement in stroke, providing further information for a more targeted planning of the rehabilitation treatment to each specific patient and for a quantitative assessment of therapy's outcome.     

Time-course of changes in arm impairment after stroke: variables predicting motor recovery over 12 months

Mirbagheri MM, Rymer WZ. Time-course of changes in arm impairment after stroke: variables predicting motor recovery over 12 months.

Objectives

To characterize the time-course of changes in motor recovery in the upper extremity of hemiparetic stroke survivors over a 1-year interval after stroke, and to use kinematic and kinetic recordings of elbow voluntary movement at 1 month to predict recovery over this 1-year period.

Design

Motor impairment was assessed using the Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA) of the upper extremity. The angular elbow movement trajectory and its derivatives were recorded. Limb kinetics were quantified using maximum voluntary contractions. Subjects were examined at 1, 2, 3, 6, and 12 months after stroke. The growth mixture model was used to characterize the recovery patterns of the FMA over 1 year, and a logistic regression analysis was used to predict these patterns with the kinematic and kinetic measures recorded at 1 month.

Setting

A hospital-based laboratory with a movement testing system including position and torque sensors.

Participants

Hemiparetic stroke survivors (N=20) with upper-extremity impairment recruited within 4 weeks poststroke.

Interventions

Not applicable.

Main Outcome Measures

Kinematic parameters, including active range of motion, peak velocity, peak acceleration, movement smoothness, and movement speed; kinetic parameters, including isometric voluntary contraction of elbow extensors and flexors; and clinical measurement of motor impairment (FMA).

Results

We found 2 classes of recovery patterns. Class 1 subjects started with a low-level FMA score and then increased quickly before tapering off gradually. Conversely, class 2 subjects started with a high-level FMA score that remained constant or increased slightly. Using logistic regression, the impact of each kinematic and kinetic measure on class membership was characterized. The class assignment helped predict the recovery pattern of motor impairment for each subject.

Conclusions

Using elbow kinematic and kinetic measures 1 month after stroke, we were able to predict accurately the recovery of arm impairment in subjects with hemiparetic stroke at different time points in the first year. This information is of potential value for planning targeted therapeutic interventions.     

Prediction of gait velocity in ambulatory stroke patients during rehabilitation

OBJECTIVE: To quantify prediction of gait velocity in ambulatory stroke patients during rehabilitation. DESIGN: Single group (n = 42) at the beginning of rehabilitation (Test 1) and 8 weeks later (Test 2). SETTING: Inpatient rehabilitation. PATIENTS: Unilateral first stroke; informed consent; able to walk 10 meters. MEASURES: Independent variables: Gait velocity at Test 1, age, time from stroke to Test 1, side of lesion, neglect. Dependent variables: Gait velocity at Test 2, gait velocity change. RESULTS: The correlation between initial gait velocity and gait velocity outcome at Test 2 was of moderate strength (r2 = .62, p<.05). However, even at its lowest, the standard error of prediction for an individual patient was 9.4 m/min, with 95% confidence intervals extending over a range of 36.8 m/min. Age was a weak predictor of gait velocity at Test 2 (r2 = -.10, p<.05). Gait velocity change was poorly predicted. The only significant correlations were initial gait velocity (r2 = .10, p<.05) and age (r2 = .10, p<.05). CONCLUSION: While the prediction of gait velocity at Test 2 was of moderate strength on a group basis, the error surrounding predicted values of gait velocity for a single patient was relatively high, indicating that this simple approach was imprecise on an individual basis. The prediction of gait velocity change was poor. A wide range of change scores was possible for patients, irrespective of their gait velocity score on admission to rehabilitation.     

The validity of a road test after stroke

OBJECTIVES: To determine the validity of a road test performed by stroke patients in Belgium and to reestablish its reliability. DESIGN: Prospective study of a predriving evaluation. SETTING: University hospital in Belgium. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-eight patients with sequelae of first-ever stroke. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Performance in the Stroke Driver Screening Assessment (SDSA) and on a road test. RESULTS: Interrater reliability of the road test subitems was moderate to substantial (weighted kappa range, .44-.78). Item-per-item reliability varied from moderately high (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC]=.63) to very high (ICC=.87). The reliability of the overall performance in the road test was very high (ICC=.83). For the criterion validity of the road test, 78.9% of the subjects were correctly classified when the judgments of the principal evaluator were compared with outcomes of the SDSA. Agreement in classification between the principal evaluator and a state-registered evaluator's judgments was 81.6%. The sensitivity and specificity of the agreement were very high (80.6%) and perfect (100%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The road test is a reliable and valid test of driving ability after stroke.     

Lateral pelvic displacement during gait: abnormalities after stroke and changes during the first month of rehabilitation

OBJECTIVES: To measure the amplitude and symmetry of lateral pelvic displacement (LPD) in patients with acute hemiparetic stroke; to assess the relationship between LPD and walking speed; and to quantify changes in LPD during 1- and 4-week intervals in the early stages of gait rehabilitation. DESIGN: LPD amplitude and symmetry were measured in stroke patients on admission to acute rehabilitation, 1 week later, and at 4-week follow-up. Performance was compared with sex-, height-, and age-matched control subjects. SETTING: Urban geriatric inpatient rehabilitation facility in Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Fifteen patients with a single-hemisphere stroke, confirmed by computed tomography, were compared with the data from 12 control subjects. Patients' FIM trade mark instrument scores ranged from 54 to 124. INTERVENTION: Gait rehabilitation involved twice-daily individual physical therapy sessions of 45 to 60 minutes, 5 days a week, incorporating whole and part practice, mental rehearsal, verbal feedback on performance, manual guidance, and strengthening techniques. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Three-dimensional motion analysis of LPD amplitude and symmetry; and preferred walking speed over 10m. RESULTS: Compared with controls, stroke patients initially showed increased amplitude of LPD, with no difference in LPD symmetry. A statistically significant linear relationship existed between walking speed and amplitude of LPD (r=-.53; P=.04), yet not between walking speed and symmetry (r=-.41, P=.13). Amplitude and symmetry values remained consistent during the 4-week period of rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide baseline LPD values for patients with acute hemiparetic stroke and demonstrate the relationship between LPD and walking speed. Change in LPD during inpatient rehabilitation was not uniform or predictable, particularly during longer periods. This highlights the need for therapists to regularly reassess each patient during the early rehabilitation phase after stroke, especially given that individual differences can be marked.     

影响脑卒中偏瘫患者自由和最大步行速度的主要功能损害因素

目的:探讨脑卒中偏瘫患者下肢运动功能、下肢肌力、平衡和痉挛等变量与自由和最大步行速度之间的相互关系,为临床优化步行训练程序提供客观依据。方法:解放军总医院康复医学科收治的脑卒中偏瘫患者85例,符合第四届全国脑血管病会议通过的诊断标准,意识清晰,可接受动作行指令,患者可独立或在监视下步行20m以上,排除下肢全关节置换术后、严重关节炎而影响步行者以及存在其他限制下肢活动的并发症者。85例恢复步行能力的脑卒中偏瘫患者,测定在自由和最大步行速度的状态下的10m步行速度,用Fugl-Meyer评价法评测下肢运动功能,用Motricity指数评测下肢肌力,用Berg平衡量表评定平衡功能,用改良Ashworth评定法评定足跖屈肌张力。分别对自由和最大步行速度与临床变量间进行Pearson相关分析,然后进行逐步回归分析。结果:患者的自由和最大步行速度与下肢运动功能、平衡和下肢肌力之间呈高度正相关(r=0.592～0.696,P<0.001)。自由步行速度与足跖屈肌痉挛呈中度的负相关(r=-0.411,P<0.05),而最大步行速度与足跖屈肌张力痉挛无相关性(r=-0.311,P=0.064);逐步回归分析发现,平衡、足跖屈肌痉挛和下肢肌力是自由步行速度的功能损害因素(R2=0.55,P<0.05),平衡和下肢运动功能是最大步行速度的功能损害因素(R2=0.535,P<0.001     

Postural control during sit-to stand and gait in stroke patients

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship of sit-to-stand and gait performance in hemiplegic stroke patients. DESIGN: A total of 40 chronic stroke patients with hemiplegia and 22 age-matched healthy subjects were included in this study. Data of a motion analysis system and three force platforms were collected in a rehabilitation unit of a medical center. RESULTS: Laboratory sit-to-stand measurement and gait analysis were evaluated in both groups via three AMTI (Advanced Mechanical Technology Inc.) force platforms and a Vicon 370 system (six high-resolution cameras and one AMTI force plate), respectively. The sit-to-stand and gait parameters of hemiplegic patients were correlated significantly, especially in rising speed and the maximal vertical force of both legs during rising. CONCLUSIONS: Hemiplegic stroke patients, who could stand up within 4.5 sec or who had a maximal vertical force difference of less than 30% of body weight between both legs, had better gait performance than the others did.