Transgenic mouse models for Alzheimer's disease: the role of GSK-3B in combined amyloid and tau-pathology

Describing and understanding the pathological processes which devastate the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients remains a major target for experimental biology. We approached this problem by generating different types of single and double transgenic mice that develop pathological hallmarks of AD. In APP-V717 mice, the progression from intracellular amyloid to diffuse and senile plaques with vascular deposits, is preceded by early defects in cognition and LTP. In Tau-P301L mice, the morbid tauopathy with intracellular filaments, cause mortality before age 1 year. Ageing APP-V717IxTau-P301L double tg mice (14-17 months) have combined AD-like pathology in hippocampus and cortex consisting of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Remarkably, while Tau-P301L mice die before age 1 year, the APP-V717IxTau-P301L double tg mice survive much longer, which correlates with alleviation of tauopathy in hindbrain, despite aggravation in forebrain. This hypothesis is corroborated in Tau-P301LxGSK-3B double transgenic mice, which have also an extended lifespan relative to Tau-P301L mice, that correlates with reduction of brainstem tauopathy. At the same time, Tau-P301LxGSK-3B mice have dramatic forebrain tauopathy, with "tangles in almost all neurons", although without hyper-phosphorylation of Tau. The data corroborate the hypothesis that GSK-3B is the missing link between the amyloid and tau-pathology, and position GSK-3B as prominent player in the pathogenesis in AD.     

X11α haploinsufficiency enhances Aβ amyloid deposition in Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice

The neuronal adaptor protein X11α/mint-1/APBA-1 binds to the cytoplasmic domain of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) to modulate its trafficking and metabolism. We investigated the consequences of reducing X11α in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We crossed hAPPswe/PS-1ΔE9 transgenic (AD tg) mice with X11α heterozygous knockout mice in which X11α expression is reduced by approximately 50%. The APP C-terminal fragments C99 and C83, as well as soluble Aβ40 and Aβ42, were increased significantly in brain of X11α haploinsufficient mice. Aβ/amyloid plaque burden also increased significantly in the hippocampus and cortex of one year old AD tg/X11α (+/−) mice compared to AD tg mice. In contrast, the levels of sAPPα and sAPPβ were not altered significantly in AD tg/X11α (+/−) mice. The increased neuropathological indices of AD in mice expressing reduced X11α suggest a normal suppressor role for X11α on CNS Aβ/amyloid deposition.     

Cytoplasmic gelsolin increases mitochondrial activity and reduces Aβ burden in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides is thought to be a critical event in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), because they induce multiple neurotoxic effects, including mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptotic cell death. Therefore the reduction of Aβ is considered a primary therapeutic target. Gelsolin, an Aβ binding protein, has been shown to inhibit apoptosis, although the underlying mechanism is unclear. To clarify these effects, we manipulated cytoplasmic gelsolin levels through viral-directed overexpression in the brain of APP/Ps1 transgenic mice. We observed that gelsolin reduces brain Aβ burden in the APP/Ps1 mice, possibly by enhancing Aβ clearance via megalin. The reduction in brain Aβ levels was accompanied by an inhibition of nitric oxide production and cell death, not only in the choroid plexus but also in the cerebral cortex. Notably, overexpressed gelsolin restored the impaired mitochondrial activity in the APP/Ps1 mice, resulting in the increase of cytochrome c oxidase activity. By contrast, RNA interference to block gelsolin expression, confirmed that cytoplasmic gelsolin acts as a modulator of brain Aβ levels and its neurotoxic effects. We conclude that gelsolin might prevent brain amyloidosis and Aβ-induced apoptotic mitochondrial changes. These findings make cytoplasmic gelsolin a potential therapeutic strategy in AD.     

Accelerated amyloid deposition, neurofibrillary degeneration and neuronal loss in double mutant APP/tau transgenic mice

Even though the idea that amyloid beta peptide accumulation is the primary event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease has become the leading hypothesis, the causal link between aberrant amyloid precursor protein processing and tau alterations in this type of dementia remains controversial. We further investigated the role of beta-amyloid production/deposition in tau pathology and neuronal cell death in the mouse brain by crossing Tg2576 and VLW lines expressing human mutant amyloid precursor protein and human mutant tau, respectively. The resulting double transgenic mice showed enhanced amyloid deposition accompanied by neurofibrillary degeneration and overt neuronal loss in selectively vulnerable brain limbic areas. These findings challenge the idea that tau pathology in Alzheimer's disease is merely a downstream effect of amyloid production/deposition and suggest that reciprocal interactions between beta-amyloid and tau alterations may take place in vivo.     

Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) inhibits neuronal apoptosis in the developing cerebral cortex in vivo

Increased expression of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in embryonic neural progenitors in vivo has been shown to accelerate neuron proliferation in the neocortex. In the present study, the in vivo actions of (IGF-I) on naturally occurring neuron death in the cerebral cortex were investigated during embryonic and early postnatal development in a line of transgenic (Tg) mice that overexpress IGF-I in the brain, directed by nestin genomic regulatory elements, beginning at least as early as embryonic day (E) 13. The areal density of apoptotic cells (N(A), cells/mm2) at E16 in the telencephalic wall of Tg and littermate control embryos was determined by immunostaining with an antibody specific for activated caspase-3. Stereological analyses were conducted to measure the numerical density (N(V), cells/mm3) and total number of immunoreactive apoptotic cells in the cerebral cortex of nestin/IGF-I Tg and control mice at postnatal days (P) 0 and 5. The volume of cerebral cortex and both the N(V) and total number of all cortical neurons also were determined in both cerebral hemispheres at P0, P5 and P270. Apoptotic cells were rare in the embryonic telencephalic wall at E16. However, the overall N(A) of apoptotic cells was found to be significantly less by 46% in Tg embryos. The volume of the cerebral cortex was significantly greater in Tg mice at P0 (30%), P5 (13%) and P270 (26%). The total number of cortical neurons in Tg mice was significantly increased at P0 (29%), P5 (29%) and P270 (31%), although the N(V) of cortical neurons did not differ significantly between Tg and control mice at any age. Transgenic mice at P0 and P5 exhibited significant decreases in the N(V) of apoptotic cells in the cerebral cortex (31% and 39%, respectively). The vast majority of these apoptotic cells (> 90%) were judged to be neurons by their morphological appearance. Increased expression of IGF-I inhibits naturally occurring (i.e. apoptotic) neuron death during early postnatal development of the cerebral cortex to a degree that sustains a persistent increase in total neuron number even in the adult animal.     

高胆固醇对AD大鼠海马神经元缺失和Tau蛋白异常磷酸化的影响

目的 研究高胆固醇饮食对阿尔茨海默病(AD)大鼠海马神经元缺失和Tau(ser202)异常磷酸化的影响.方法 海马齿状同注射B淀粉样蛋白(A13)建立AD大鼠模型,根据不同饮食,将动物分为高胆同醇AD组、高胆同醇磷酸盐缓冲液(PBS)组、标准饮食AD组和标准饮食PBS组;采用尼氏染色方法检测海马神经元缺失率,应用免疫组织化学方法检测海马及皮层Tau(ser202)磷酸化水平.结果 高胆固醇饮食增加海马神经元缺失,高胆固醇饮食AD组海马神经元缺失率(30.9%±4.6%)明显大于标准饮食AD组(22.7%±1.9%)、高胆同醇饮食PBS组(7.O%±1.5%)和标准饮食PBS组(5.4%±1.1%),差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05);高胆固醇AD组、标准饮食AD组、高胆固醇PBS组、标准饮食PBS组海马齿状回(Pser202)Tau阳性细胞数分别为65.5±6.2、48.8±4.8、22.5±3.1和12.7±1.7,比较差异均有统计学意义(P＜0,05).结论 高胆固醇饮食促进Aβ诱导神经元缺失和Tau蛋白异常磷酸化.     

Mildronate improves cognition and reduces amyloid‐β pathology in transgenic Alzheimer's disease mice

Mildronate, a carnitine congener drug, previously has been shown to provide neuroprotection in an azidothymidine‐induced mouse model of neurotoxicity and in a Parkinson's disease rat model. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of mildronate treatment on cognition and pathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD) model mice (APP_SweDI). Mildronate was administered i.p. daily at 50 or 100 mg/kg for 28 days. At the end of treatment, the animals were behaviorally and cognitively tested, and brains were assessed for AD‐related pathology, inflammation, synaptic markers, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). The data show that mildronate treatment significantly improved animal performance in water maze and social recognition tests, lowered amyloid‐β deposition in the hippocampus, increased expression of the microglia marker Iba‐1, and decreased AChE staining, although it did not alter expression of proteins involved in synaptic plasticity (GAP‐43, synaptophysin, and GAD67). Taken together, these findings indicate mildronate's ability to improve cognition and reduce amyloid‐β pathology in a mouse model of AD and its possible therapeutic utility as a disease‐modifying drug in AD patients. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Co-localization of amyloid-associated proteins with amyloid β in rat soleus muscle in chloroquine-induced myopathy: a possible model for amyloid β formation in Alzheimer's disease

Chloroquine, a potent lysosomotropic agent, induces myopathy in experimental animals similar to rimmed vacuole (RV) myopathy in humans. The abnormal accumulation of amyloid β protein (A β), which is the invariable pathological alterations in the brains affected by Alzheimer's disease (AD), has been demonstrated in denervated soleus muscle fibers in chloroquine-induced myopathy in rats. In AD affected brains, a variety of additional proteins are associated with the extracellular deposition of A β, which leads to the intracellular accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles and finally to neuronal death. In this study, we demonstrate that amyloid-associated proteins,α₁-antichymotrypsin, apolipoprotein E, SP-40,40 and ubiquitin co-localize with A β in vacuolated muscle fibers in chloroquine-induced myopathy. There are striking similarities in immunopathology between experimental RV myopathy and AD. Chloroquine-induced myopathy in rats provides a suitable model not only to obtain insight into the basic mechanisms underlying RV formation in muscle, but also to understand amyloid precursor protein processing into A β, and the role of amyloid-associated proteins in terms of the pathogenesis of AD.     

Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 suppresses the onset of symptoms and disease progression of G93A-SOD1 mouse model of ALS

Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3 has recently been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Although the neuroprotective effects of GSK-3 inhibitors in Alzheimer's disease have been established, their effects on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) have not been well defined. This study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of GSK-3 inhibition in the G93A-SOD1 mouse model of ALS. Groups of G93A-SOD1 mice were treated with varying concentrations of GSK-3 inhibitor VIII, a specific GSK-3 inhibitor that crosses the BBB, intraperitoneally 5 days a week after 60 days of age. The GSK-3 inhibitor VIII treatment significantly delayed the onset of symptoms and prolonged the life span of the animals, and inhibited the activity of GSK-3 in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, this treatment preserved survival signals and attenuated death and inflammatory signals. These data suggest that GSK-3 plays an important role in the pathogenic mechanisms of ALS and that inhibition of GSK-3 could be a potential therapeutic candidate for ALS.     

Synaptotrophic effects of human amyloid β protein precursors in the cortex of transgenic mice

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD) because its degradation products accumulate abnormally in AD brains and APP mutations are associated with early onset AD. However, its role in health and disease appears to be complex, with different APP derivatives showing either neurotoxic or neurotrophic effects in vitro. To elucidate the effects APP has on the brain in vivo, cDNAs encoding different forms of human APP (hAPP) were placed downstream of the neuron-specific enolase (NSE) promoter. In multiple lines of NSE-hAPP transgenic mice neuronal overexpression of hAPP was accompanied by an increase in the number of synaptophysin immunoreactive (SYN-IR) presynaptic terminals and in the expression of the growth-associated marker GAP-43. In lines expressing moderate levels of hAPP751 or hAPP695, this effect was more prominent in homozygous than in heterozygous transgenic mice. In contrast, a line with several-fold higher levels of hAPP695 expression showed less increase in SYN-IR presynaptic terminals per amount of hAPP expressed than the lower expressor lines and a decrease in synaptotrophic effects in homozygous compared with heterozygous offspring. Transgenic mice (2–24 months of age) showed no evidence for amyloid deposits or neurodegeneration. These findings suggest that APP may be important for the formation/maintenance of synapses in vivo and that its synaptotrophic effects may be critically dependent on the expression levels of different APP isoforms. Alterations in APP expression, processing or function could contribute to the synaptic pathology seen in AD.     

An amyloid-β protofibril-selective antibody prevents amyloid formation in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Human genetics link Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis to excessive accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) in brain, but the symptoms do not correlate with senile plaque burden. Since soluble Aβ aggregates can cause synaptic dysfunctions and memory deficits, these species could contribute to neuronal dysfunction and dementia. Here we explored selective targeting of large soluble aggregates, Aβ protofibrils, as a new immunotherapeutic strategy. The highly protofibril-selective monoclonal antibody mAb158 inhibited in vitro fibril formation and protected cells from Aβ protofibril-induced toxicity. When the mAb158 antibody was administered for 4 months to plaque-bearing transgenic mice with both the Arctic and Swedish mutations (tg-ArcSwe), Aβ protofibril levels were lowered while measures of insoluble Aβ were unaffected. In contrast, when treatment began before the appearance of senile plaques, amyloid deposition was prevented and Aβ protofibril levels diminished. Therapeutic intervention with mAb158 was however not proven functionally beneficial, since place learning depended neither on treatment nor transgenicity. Our findings suggest that Aβ protofibrils can be selectively cleared with immunotherapy in an animal model that display highly insoluble Aβ deposits, similar to those of Alzheimer's disease brain.     

β-Amyloid polypeptide increases calcium-uptake in PC12 cells: a possible mechanism for its cellular toxicity in Alzheimer's disease

Calcium-uptake into PC12 cells was measured by incubation with⁴⁵Ca after the cells were exposed for 24 h to β-amyloid peptide(1–40) at concentrations between 0 and 46 μM. The rate of influx of⁴⁵Ca into PC12 cells was constant for the first 10 min. For 46 μM β-amyloid peptide(1–40), the rate of influx was about 1,300 ions/s/μm² and the number of cells decreased significantly. There was no significant decrease in cell number when cells were exposed to β-amyloid in calcium-free medium. These results indicate that β-amyloid increases calcium uptake into PC12 cells, and suggest that the increased uptake is responsible for the toxicity of β-amyloid in PC12 cells.     

Plaque-associated α-synuclein (NACP) pathology in aged transgenic mice expressing amyloid precursor protein

Patients with the Lewy body variant (LBV) of Alzheimer's disease (AD) have ubiquitinated intraneuronal and neuritic accumulations of α-synuclein and show less neuron loss and tau pathology than other AD patients. Aged Tg2576 transgenic mice overexpressing human βAPP695. KM670/671NL have limited neuron loss and tau pathology, but frequent ubiquitin- and α-synuclein-positive, tau-negative neurites resembling those seen in the LBV of AD.     

β/A4-Amyloid increases nerve growth factor production in rat primary hippocampal astrocyte cultures

Nerve growth factor (NGF), a member of the neurotrophin family, is an essential mediator of neuronal activity and synaptic plasticity of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN). In processes of chronic degeneration of BFCN like in Alzheimer's disease (AD), characterized among others by amyloid containing plaques, NGF has been shown to improve cognitive decline and rescue BFCN but also to reduce survival of hippocampal neurons via p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75). Little is known about the mechanisms of NGF regulation in glial cells under pathological conditions in AD. This study investigates the influence of amyloid administration on the NGF protein secretion in rat primary hippocampal astrocytes. Astrocytes were stimulated with "aged" beta/A4-Amyloid (1-40), and NGF was measured in different fractions, such as supernatant, vesicles, and cytosol fraction. Treatment with amyloid at a final concentration of 10 microM for 72 h led to increased NGF protein levels up to 30-fold increase compared to unstimulated controls. This observation may be an endogenous neuroprotective mechanism possibly contributing to a delay of amyloid-dependent loss of cholinergic neurons or contribute to accelerated neuronal death by activation of p75 within Alzheimer pathology.     

Vulnerability of small GABAergic neurons to human β-amyloid pentapeptide

β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ), the principal component of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease, has been found to be neurotoxic. The role of Aβ in the deficits of the GABAergic system in patients with Alzheimer's disease is unclear. It has been suggested that the cytotoxic activity of Aβ is localized to amino acid residues 25–35 of this peptide, which contains a total of 42 amino acid residues. We now report that the short amyloid peptide fragments corresponding to amino acids 31–35 (Aβ31–35) and 34–39 (Aβ34–39) are also toxic in vitro to the small GABAergic neuron population of basal forebrain cultures. Morphological changes were accompanied by an increased number of varicosities localized on the processes of the GABA-immunoreactive neurons and by the appearance of round cells without processes. The neurodegeneration was confirmed by means of scanning electron microscopy. Quantification of the morphological findings by image analysis demonstrated a size-related dependence of the degeneration of GABAergic neurons. The results suggest that fragments of Aβ shorter than Aβ25–35 may exert cytotoxic action and demonstrate the toxicity of these Aβ fragments in decreasing the number of small GABAergic neurons.     

Differential interactions of phenobarbital and pentobarbital with β-adrenergic mechanisms in vitro and in vivo

To study the specific membrane actions of the antiepileptic phenobarbital, its effects on frog nerve action potentials were compared with those of pentobarbital. In isolated nerves, the spike amplitude-lowering effect of pentobarbital was augmented by l-epinephrine and blocked by the β-adrenergic blockers sotalol and propranolol, but not by the structurally related local anesthetic d-propranolol or by the α-adrenergic agent phentolamine. These drug interactions, as well as other interactions with calcium and with the dibutyryl derivative of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, suggest that pentobarbital activates axonal β-adrenergic mechanisms. In contrast, the effects of phenobarbital (and procaine) were antagonized by l-epinephrine. Calcium appears to be an important second messenger for the effects of epinephrine on barbiturate action. The effect of phenobarbital differed from that of procaine in not being calcium dependent. These studies indicate that pentobarbital and phenobarbital affect electrically excitable membranes in a specific manner, different from that of nonspecific membrane stabilizers and from each other. In vivo experiments (mouse maximal electroshock seizures) show that the β blockers also interact with pentobarbital, but not with phenobarbital.     

Transglutaminase facilitates the formation of polymers of the β-amyloid peptide

One of the major pathological characteristics of Alzheimer's disease is the increased number of amyloid-containing senile plaques within the brain. The dense cores of these plaques are composed primarily of highly insoluble aggregates of a 39–43-residue peptide referred to as the β-amyloid peptide (βA). The mechanisms by which these insoluble extracellular deposits of βA are formed remain unknown. In this study, the cross-linking of βA by the calcium-dependent enzyme, transglutaminase was examined. Transglutaminases are a family of enzymes which are found in brain, and catalyse the cross-linking of specific proteins into insoluble polymers. Synthetic βA (1–40) was readily cross-linked by transglutaminase, forming multimers in a time-dependent fashion. Furthermore, a second peptide with a substitution similar to that in the Dutch-type hereditary amyloidosis mutation (Glu²² to Gln) was also found to be a substrate fro transglutaminase. Since transglutaminase covalently cross-links proteins through glutamine residues, it is suggested that transglutaminase contributes to amyloid deposition in Dutch-type hereditary amyloidosis, and possibl Alzheimer's disease.     

Overexpression of wild-type human APP in mice causes cognitive deficits and pathological features unrelated to Aβ levels

Transgenic mice expressing mutant human amyloid precursor protein (APP) develop an age-dependent amyloid pathology and memory deficits, but no overt neuronal loss. Here, in mice overexpressing wild-type human APP (hAPP_wt) we found an early memory impairment, particularly in the water maze and to a lesser extent in the object recognition task, but β-amyloid peptide (Aβ₄₂) was barely detectable in the hippocampus. In these mice, hAPP processing was basically non-amyloidogenic, with high levels of APP carboxy-terminal fragments, C83 and APP intracellular domain. A tau pathology with an early increase in the levels of phosphorylated tau in the hippocampus, a likely consequence of enhanced ERK1/2 activation, was also observed. Furthermore, these mice presented a loss of synapse-associated proteins: PSD95, AMPA and NMDA receptor subunits and phosphorylated CaMKII. Importantly, signs of neurodegeneration were found in the hippocampal CA1 subfield and in the entorhinal cortex that were associated to a marked loss of MAP2 immunoreactivity. Conversely, in mice expressing mutant hAPP, high levels of Aβ₄₂ were found in the hippocampus, but no signs of neurodegeneration were apparent. The results support the notion of Aβ-independent pathogenic pathways in Alzheimer's disease.     

Hippocampal β-amyloid reduces locus coeruleus glutamate and tyrosine hydroxylase

The effects of intrahippocampally injected β-amyloid protein (β-AP) on glutamate- (Glu) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-like immunoreactivities in the neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC) were studied in rats. A synthetic peptide or the vehicle alone was injected into the hippocampus as controls. All injections were made once a week (two or three injections; 3 nmol in 2 μ1 of distilled water). Fluorescent microspheres (either alone or with one of the peptides) were also injected into the hippocampus to identify coeruleo-hippocampal neurons. The results revealed cell loss in the hippocampus at the site near β-AP or control peptide deposition. Furthermore, in β-AP/microsphere injected animals, only 22.4% and 49.6% of hippocampal projection neurons contained Glu and TH, respectively, compared to 88.4% and 85.3% in the animals that received control peptide with microspheres. Our results suggest that β-AP has an effect on noradrenergic cells whose axons project to the hippocampus. These effects may contribute to the TH cell loss in the LC of Alzheimer's brains.     

Role of tau in the polymerization of peptides from β-amyloid precursor protein

The composition of paired helical filaments (PHFs), the intracellular amyloid fibrils that accumulate in the brains of Alzheimer patients, is not completely known. We investigated whether synthetic peptides from β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) can form PHF-like fibrils. Two peptides formed fibrils morphologically similar to PHFs. The presence of tau protein, a known PHF component, greatly enhanced the numbers of fibrils formed from one peptide, from the C-terminus of APP, and became associated with the fibrils. A τ fragment corresponding to the tubulin-binding region was sufficient to induce fibril formation. Tau did not alter fibril formation by the other peptide, which was from the β/A4 region of APP. These results raise the possibility that a C-terminal fragment of APP, along with tau, may be involved in PHF formation. Thus the proteolytic processing of APP may generate fragments that contribute to both amyloids and both histopathologic lesions of Alzheimer's disease.