The Cultural and Community-Level Acceptance of Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Among Traditional Healers in Eastern Cape,South Africa

The HIV/AIDS epidemic has profoundly impacted South Africa's healthcare system, greatly hampering its ability to scale-up the provision of antiretroviral therapy (ART). While one way to provide comprehensive care and prevention in sub-Saharan African countries has been through collaboration with traditional healers, long-term support specifically for ART has been low within this population. An exploratory, qualitative research project was conducted among 25 self-identified traditional healers between June and August of 2006 in the Lukhanji District of South Africa. By obtaining the opinions of traditional healers currently interested in biomedical approaches to HIV/AIDS care and prevention, this formative investigation identified a range of motivational factors that were believed to promote a deeper acceptance of and support for ART. These factors included cultural consistencies between traditional and biomedical medicine, education, as well as legal and financial incentives to collaborate. Through an incorporation of these factors into future HIV/AIDS treatment programs, South Africa and other sub-Saharan countries may dramatically strengthen their ability to provide ART in resource-poor settings.     

Fighting HIV/AIDS: is success possible?

The fight against HIV/AIDS poses enormous challenges worldwide, generating fears that success may be too difficult or even impossible to attain. Uganda has demonstrated that an early, consistent and multisectoral control strategy can reduce both the prevalence and the incidence of HIV infection. From only two AIDS cases in 1982, the epidemic in Uganda grew to a cumulative 2 million HIV infections by the end of 2000. The AIDS Control Programme established in 1987 in the Ministry of Health mounted a national response that expanded over time to reach other relevant sectors under the coordinating role of the Uganda AIDS Commission. The national response was to bring in new policies, expanded partnerships, increased institutional capacity for care and research, public health education for behaviour change, strengthened sexually transmitted disease (STD) management, improved blood transfusion services, care and support services for persons with HIV/AIDS, and a surveillance system to monitor the epidemic. After a decade of fighting on these fronts, Uganda became, in October 1996, the first African nation to report declining trends in HIV infection. Further decline in prevalence has since been noted. The Medical Research Council (UK) and the Uganda Virus Research Institute have demonstrated declining HIV incidence rates in the general population in the Kyamulibwa in Masaka Districts. Repeat knowledge, attitudes, behaviour and practice studies have shown positive changes in the priority prevention indicators. The data suggest that a comprehensive national response supported by strong political commitment may be responsible for the observed decline. Other countries in sub-Saharan Africa can achieve similar results by these means. Since success is possible, anything less is unacceptable.     

Integrating HIV management for children into the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness guidelines

The WHO/UNICEF strategy of Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) has been adopted as a strategy for improving paediatric care in resource-poor settings. The original IMCI guidelines recommend referral of children with severe or recurrent illnesses such as those common in HIV/AIDS, however the specific identification and management was not included. In many countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, HIV/AIDS contributes significantly to child morbidity and mortality. There was a need to include the specific assessment and management of symptomatic HIV infection in IMCI guidelines. A draft HIV component of the IMCI guidelines was developed, which included management of symptomatic HIV cases with referral for counselling and testing, and was evaluated in South Africa. A revised version was then validated in Ethiopia and Uganda where HIV, malnutrition and malaria prevalence is different from South Africa. IMCI materials have been adapted to include an HIV component. Currently, very few children under 15 years of age receive antiretroviral therapy (ART). Chronic HIV care of children, including ART for children, has been developed within the Integrated Management of Adolescent and Adult Illness (IMAI) initiative of the WHO. Through this initiative, the WHO is assisting countries to facilitate care and treatment of children undergoing ART.     

Stronger health systems for more effective HIV/AIDS prevention and care

Of the 42 million living with HIV/AIDS world-wide some 90% live in developing countries. The international community acknowledges the devastating impact of HIV/AIDS on development and over the past few years resources to control HIV/AIDS have increased considerably. We argue that strengthening of health systems is a necessary prerequisite for improving the prevention of HIV infection and the care of HIV-infected persons. Sexual behaviour change requires a multidisciplinary approach, but health services play a crucial role in detection and treatment of other sexually transmitted infections; HIV counselling and testing; prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV; and care of HIV-infected patients. Increasing access to antiretroviral treatment especially poses formidable challenges to health authorities in developing countries. Additional resources for the prevention of HIV-infection and the care of HIV-infected persons may not have the desired impact if health systems in developing countries are not strengthened. Further, any activity in the area of HIV/AIDS prevention and care, carried out within health services, can have a positive ripple effect on other health care activities and vice versa. This interactive effect needs to be acknowledged and built on.     

The Global HIV/AIDS pandemic, 2006

Since the first cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) were reported in 1981, infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has grown to pandemic proportions, resulting in an estimated 65 million infections and 25 million deaths. During 2005 alone, an estimated 2.8 million persons died from AIDS, 4.1 million were newly infected with HIV, and 38.6 million were living with HIV. HIV continues to disproportionately affect certain geographic regions (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean) and subpopulations (e.g., women in sub-Saharan Africa, men who have sex with men [MSM], injection-drug users [IDUs], and sex workers). Effective prevention and treatment of HIV infection with antiretroviral therapy (ART) are now available, even in countries with limited resources. Nonetheless, comprehensive programs are needed to reach all persons who require treatment and to prevent transmission of new infections.     

Genital herpes and human immunodeficiency virus: double trouble

The synergistic relationship between herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can be substantial in developing countries that have high prevalences of both viral infections. Genital herpes, most frequently caused by HSV-2, has become the leading cause of genital ulcer disease worldwide. This review of recent research on genital herpes and enhanced susceptibility to, and transmission of, HIV is part of the "Advances in HIV/AIDS research series" which endeavours to form a bridge between the research into HIV and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the practice of HIV/AIDS prevention, care and support in developing countries. Research findings have shown that being seropositive for HSV-2 can increase the risk of HIV acquisition among high-risk HIV-negative people exposed to HIV and, likewise, the infectiousness of individuals co-infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2 can increase during periods of HSV-2 reactivation. These observations have led to the initiation of several intervention trials and could ultimately lead to the setting of new priorities in public health and clinical practice. WHO has recently issued new guidelines for the syndromic management of genital ulcer disease that include antiviral treatment for lesions consistent with genital herpes. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issued updated Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines in 2002 that recommended the use of type-specific serological tests for diagnosing HSV-2. Recently launched proof-of-concept, HSV-2 intervention trials in several countries will help to determine the proportion of new HIV infections that could be prevented by suppression of HSV-2, and the findings from these studies will inform those involved in setting prevention and treatment priorities and strategies in developing countries.     

From treatment to prevention: The interplay between HIV/AIDS treatment availability and HIV/AIDS prevention programming in Khayelitsha,South Africa

There is a paucity of research that illustrates the interplay between HIV/AIDS treatment and prevention programs. We describe the central role that public access to antiretroviral (ARV) medication has played in the development and efficacy of HIV/AIDS prevention programming in Khayelitsha, a resource-poor township in the Western Cape of South Africa. We document the range of preventive interventions and services available in Khayelitsha since the early 1990s and explore the impact of ARV availability on prevention efforts and disease stigma on the basis of extensive indepth interviews, supplemented by data collection. The information gathered suggests that the introduction of the mother-to-child-transmission (MTCT) prevention programs in 1999 and the three HIV treatment clinics run by Doctors Without Borders/ Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) in 2000 were turning points in the region’s response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. These programs have provided incentives for HIV testing, galvanized HIV/AIDS educators to reach populations most at risk, and decreased the HIV incidence rates in Khayeltisha compared to other areas in the Western Cape. Lessons learned in Khayelitsha about the value of treatment availability in facilitating prevention efforts can inform the development of comprehensive approaches to HIV/ AIDS in other resource-poor areas.     

The United States government's response to HIV/AIDS today: 'Test and treat' as prevention

Three decades into the HIV/AIDS epidemic, HIV prevention programs have been only partially effective. New prevention tools are providing new reasons for optimism. Effective use of these new tools, including the 'test-and-treat' strategy, will require considerable effort to assure that their potential for prevention is fully realized. Challenges with the test-and-treat strategy are global ones, and include retention in care and adherence to treatment. Worldwide, those with HIV infection become less adherent to antiretroviral therapy over time. Many factors contributing to retention in care and adherence to therapy differ among countries and regions of the world. HIV-infected persons receiving treatment in sub-Saharan Africa have been reported to have higher adherence rates than those receiving treatment on the North American continent; higher health literacy and perception of treatment as a social obligation may enhance adherence to treatment and retention in care. The HIV test-and-treat strategy offers a major step forward when combined with other prevention efforts; we need to consider what additional steps are needed to deliver on the promise of prevention through treatment.     

Latest figures on AIDS

In its June 1998 report on the global AIDS epidemic, UNAIDS noted that HIV has more than doubled the adult mortality rate in some countries and is the leading cause of death in many countries in East Africa. Over 80% of AIDS deaths have occurred in sub-Saharan Africa. In South Africa, there are an estimated 2.9 million HIV-positive persons, 700,000 of whom were infected in 1997 alone. In Botswana, 25% of adults are HIV-positive. Encouraging, however, are indications that HIV infection rates among younger people are falling in Uganda and Tanzania in response to active AIDS prevention programs. Even in countries where expensive antiretroviral therapies are not feasible, increased access to HIV testing and counseling can promote risk-reduction behaviors.     

Highly active antiretroviral therapy and tuberculosis control in Africa: synergies and potential

HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) and TB (tuberculosis) are two of the world's major pandemics, the brunt of which falls on sub-Saharan Africa. Efforts aimed at controlling HIV/AIDS have largely focused on prevention, little attention having been paid to care. Work on TB control has concentrated on case detection and treatment. HIV infection has complicated the control of tuberculosis. There is unlikely to be a decline in the number of cases of TB unless additional strategies are developed to control both this disease and HIV simultaneously. Such strategies would include active case-finding in situations where TB transmission is high, the provision of a package of care for HIV-related illness, and the application of highly active antiretroviral therapy. The latter is likely to have the greatest impact, but for this therapy to become more accessible in Africa the drugs would have to be made available through international support and a programme structure would have to be developed for its administration. It could be delivered by means of a structure based on the five-point strategy called DOTS, which has been adopted for TB control. However, it may be unrealistic to give TB control programmes the responsibility for running such a programme. A better approach might be to deliver highly active antiretroviral therapy within a comprehensive HIV/AIDS management strategy complementing the preventive work already being undertaken by AIDS control programmes. TB programmes could contribute towards the development and implementation of this strategy.     

Current trends in the treatment of HIV infection, 2003

The HIV/AIDS epidemic appears to have stabilized in the world's developed countries while it is still worsening in many areas of the resource-poor world. HIV/AIDS patients in countries such as the United States are living longer primarily due to the availability of potent antiretroviral drug combinations and tests to monitor the risk of progression of disease. Management of HIV is very complicated. General guidelines for treatment are available. Published guidelines, however, are often too simplistic and do not reflect new or controversial information. Most patients will develop resistant virus during their treatment. Several antiretroviral medications are on the horizon that will afford better options for treatment, and studies are underway to evaluate treatment strategies that would be potent, less toxic, and convenient for patients. Because the field of HIV care continues to evolve rapidly and there is increasing diversity among infected patients, treatment and prevention are optimized when provided by a dedicated care team supervised by an HIV specialist.     

Women's voices, women's choices: the challenge of nutrition and HIV/AIDS

The Society for International Nutrition Research sponsored a Symposium titled "Women's Voices, Women's Choices: The Challenge of Nutrition and HIV/AIDS in Asia and Africa" at Experimental Biology 2004 to highlight the challenges facing HIV-positive women living in resource-poor settings of Asia and Africa, when it comes to the everyday decisions they are forced to make about their own health and nutrition, and the health and the nutrition of their children. This introductory paper summarizes the rationale for this session, including a summary of the evidence for women's increased vulnerability to HIV, the nutritional impacts of HIV infection, and the special infant feeding and nutritional concerns facing HIV-positive pregnant and lactating mothers in Africa and Asia. The issue of nutrition and HIV/AIDS is addressed here from an intergenerational perspective, using new data from qualitative research, clinical trials, and behavioral interventions in India, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, to illustrate important concerns, using study participants' own words to convey key messages. The focus is on women, because they are shouldering much of the burden of HIV infection in terms of their numbers and in their responsibilities for providing food and care for orphans and HIV-affected family members. Infant feeding choices are also considered in this review, because of the vast implications that not breast-feeding at all and stopping breast-feeding early have on the nutritional well-being of HIV-exposed children, as well as the positive contribution of breast-feeding to child nutrition and survival worldwide.     

Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: nutrition intervention in the care of persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection

Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) have had a significant impact on domestic and global health, social, political, and economic outcomes. Prevention and treatment efforts to control HIV infection are more demanding than in previous decades. Achieving food and nutrition security, and managing nutrition-related complications of HIV infection and the multiple aspects of disease initiated by or surrounding HIV infection, referred to as HIV disease, remain challenges for patients and for those involved with HIV/AIDS prevention, care, and treatment efforts. Confounding clinical issues include medication interactions, coinfection with other infections and diseases, wasting, lipodystrophy, and others. Dietetics professionals, other health care professionals, and people infected with HIV will need to understand and address multiple complex aspects of HIV infection and treatment to improve survival, body functions, and overall quality of life. Individualized nutrition care plans will be an essential feature of the medical management of persons with HIV infection and AIDS.     

The political environment of HIV: lessons from a comparison of Uganda and South Africa

Considerable interest has arisen in the role of governance or political commitment in determining the success or failure of HIV/AIDS policies in sub-Saharan Africa. During the 1990s, Uganda and South Africa both faced dramatic HIV/AIDS epidemics and also saw transformations to new political systems. However, their responses to the disease differed in many ways. This paper compares and contrasts the ways in which policy environments, particularly government structures, can impede or expedite implementation of effective HIV prevention. Four elements of these environments are discussed--the role of political leadership, the existing bureaucratic system, the health care infrastructure, and the roles assigned to non-state actors. Two common international strategies for HIV prevention, syndromic management of sexually transmitted infections and sexual behaviour change interventions, are examined in relation to these elements in Uganda and South Africa during the mid-to-late 1990s. During this period, Uganda's political system succeeded in promoting behaviour change interventions, while South Africa was more successful in syndromic management efforts. Interactions between the four elements of the policy environment were found to be conducive to such results. These elements are relatively static features of the socio-political environments, so lessons can be drawn for current HIV/AIDS policy, both in these two countries and for a wider audience addressing the epidemic.     

Late versus early testing of HIV--16 Sites,United States, 2000-2003

Knowledge of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) serostatus has been an important element of HIV-prevention and -treatment efforts. In 2000, among the estimated 850,000-950,000 persons living with HIV in the United States, approximately one fourth (180,000-280,000) were unaware that they were HIV infected. In addition, many persons with HIV are tested late in the course of infection, usually as a result of illness. During 1994-1999, among persons who had HIV diagnosed, 43% were tested late in the infection (i.e., had acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [AIDS] diagnosed within one year of HIV diagnosis). Late testing results in missed opportunities for prevention and treatment of HIV. To characterize HIV-testing patterns among HIV-infected persons, CDC analyzed data from a multisite interview project. During May 2000-February 2003, persons at 16 U.S. sites who were tested early in the course of HIV disease (early testers) were compared with persons who were tested late in the course of HIV disease (late testers). This report summarizes the results of the analysis, which indicate that late testers were more likely than early testers to be black or Hispanic, less educated, and exposed to HIV through heterosexual contact. Reducing the incidence of both new infections and HIV-associated morbidity and mortality will require earlier testing and improved access to prevention and care services for persons infected with HIV. A new CDC initiative, "Advancing HIV Prevention: New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic," is aimed at reducing barriers to early diagnosis of HIV infection and increasing access to quality medical care, treatment, and ongoing prevention services.     

Some clinical aspects of HIV infection in Africa

An update on clinical aspects of HIV in africa highlights new proposed clinical definitions of adult AIDS and of tuberculosis in HIV+ adults, and staging of adult HIV infection. The 1986 WHO clinical definition of AIDS has been widely used in Africa, but now research suggests that this definition has several limitations: the definition will pick up several unrelated diseases such as diabetes mellitus and renal failure. It does not ascertain cases of AIDS marked by nonopportunistic infections. Most persons with pulmonary tuberculosis may be wrongly diagnosed with AIDS by this definition. The study showed that the WHO clinical definition has good specificity and positive predictive value for HIV+ people, but its positive predictive value fell to 30% in identifying people with AIDS in Africa. New definitions should take into account any serious morbidity, tuberculosis, neurological disease, both endemic localized Kaposi's, and aggressive typical Kaposi's sarcoma, and HIV serological testing. Tuberculosis is a problem because few HIV+ people suspected of having pulmonary TB (sputum-negative TB) actually have it based on bronchoscopy, while HIV+ persons with TB experience high mortality, often from pyogenic bacteremia. HIV+ persons with TB suffer high rates of relapse, possibly related to insufficient drug treatment or reinfection. 1 study showed that 6 months of isoniazid significantly improved incidence of TB over 30 months of follow-up. Staging of AIDS in Africa based on degree of immunosuppression was proposed as: 1) clinically inapparent HIV infection marked by pulmonary TB, soft tissue infections, and community acquired pneumonia; 2) lymphadenopathy, oral thrush, widespread pruritic maculopapular rash, herpes zoster, enteric illness, dysentery, and Kaposi's sarcoma; and 3) HIV wasting syndrome, chronic pulmonary disease, meningitis, and fever of unknown origin.     

Diagnosis and reporting of HIV and AIDS in states with HIV/AIDS surveillance--United States, 1994-2000

Before advances in therapy, public health surveillance of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) provided reliable population-based information that represented trends in the incidence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. However, since 1996, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has prolonged substantially the interval between the diagnosis of HIV infection and the development of AIDS, which has diminished the capacity of AIDS surveillance alone to monitor the underlying patterns of HIV transmission. As a result, CDC recommends that states conduct HIV-infection reporting in addition to AIDS surveillance. This report describes trends in newly diagnosed cases of HIV infection in 25 states that conducted name-based HIV/AIDS surveillance during 1994-2000. The findings indicate that the number of diagnosed HIV infections declined in these states during 1994-1997 and remained constant during 1998-2000. HIV/AIDS surveillance should be conducted by all states to fully characterize persons infected with HIV who need treatment and prevention services.     

Inequalities in health: access to treatment for HIV/AIDS

The HIV infection represents a very clear example of the inequalities in access to health care between rich and poor countries: AIDS is a disease that the Western world can treat and the resource-limited countries cannot. In the world scenario a total of 5 million patients with HIV/AIDS who need treatment have no access to therapy: the estimated treatment coverage is 28% in Sub-Saharan Africa, 19% in Asia and only 14% in low and middle-income countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. A broad, multisectorial response at national and international levels is required to guarantee access to antiretroviral drugs for all people with HIV/AIDS who need them.     

SMS for disease control in developing countries: a systematic review of mobile health applications

Mobile phones provide a low cost method of addressing certain health system needs in developing countries. We examined SMS-supported interventions for prevention, surveillance, management and treatment compliance of communicable and non-communicable diseases in developing countries. We searched both peer-reviewed and grey literature reporting the use of SMS messages for disease prevention, surveillance, self-management and compliance in developing countries. A total of 98 applications fulfilled the inclusion criteria (33 prevention, 19 surveillance, 29 disease management and 17 patient compliance applications). In 31 projects, the SMS applications were evaluated. The majority of applications focused on HIV/AIDS and were located in India, South Africa and Kenya. Most used bulk (push) messaging. In general, they were well accepted by the population. The review provides further evidence that mobile phones are an appropriate and promising tool for disease control interventions in developing countries.     

Current epidemiology of Pneumocystis pneumonia

Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) has historically been one of the leading causes of disease among persons with AIDS. The introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy in industrialized nations has brought about dramatic declines in the incidence of AIDS-associated complications, including PCP. In the adult population, the incidence of PCP has significantly decreased, but it remains among the most common AIDS-defining infections. Similar declines have been documented in the pediatric population. In much of the developing world, PCP remains a significant health problem, although its incidence among adults in sub-Saharan Africa has been debated. This review discusses the epidemiology of PCP during the current era of the AIDS epidemic. Although fewer cases of PCP occur in industrialized countries, increasing drug-resistant HIV infections, possible drug-resistant PCP, and the tremendous number of AIDS cases in developing countries make this disease of continued public health importance.