The Impact of Preoperative Autologous Blood Donation on Orthopaedic Surgical Practice

We have conducted a retrospective 3-year analysis of our autologous blood donation program to assess its impact on orthopaedic surgery. We conclude: (1) utilization has increased from less than 5% of eligible patients in the first audit interval to nearly 50% in the last audit interval; (2) in the last audit interval, autologous blood donation resulted in a reduction of homologous blood transfusion from 41% in nonautologous blood patients to 14% in autologous blood donors; (3) increasingly conservative transfusion practice is seen for all patients undergoing elective orthopaedic surgery; (4) regional blood centers are responding to increasing requests for autologous blood with programs that are effective in attracting autologous blood donors; (5) on the basis of utilization and efficacy, preoperative autologous blood donation as an alternative to homologous blood transfusion now represents a standard of practice for elective orthopaedic surgery.     

储存式自体输血在Rh(D)阴性血型患者择期手术中的应用

目的:探讨储存式自体输血在Rh(D)阴性血型患者择期手术中的应用.方法:对78例Rh(D)阴性血型患者在术前3～9 d根据预计术中输血量分次采集自体血800～1200 ml.采血后患者口服多糖铁150 mg,tid同时适当加强营养.采集的血液置4℃贮血冰箱内保存备用.结果:78例患者中除4例因肿瘤巨大手术出血量过多,分别输异体悬浮红细胞3 U(2例),4 U(2例),其余病例均未输注异体血,手术获得顺利完成.检测患者采血前,后及回输后Hb、Hct值,经统计分析差异无统计学意义.结论:储存式自体输血对Rh(D)阴性血型患者在择期手术中是解决血源紧张的一种行之有效的方法,具有临床推广应用价值.     

贮存式自体输血在Rh（D）阴性孕妇分娩中的应用

目的：了解贮存式自体输血在Rh（D）阴性孕妇分娩中的实际应用情况。方法：产前1～3周采集并贮存孕妇自身血液,分娩时或分娩后回输给产妇。结果：产前45例贮存自体血的Rh（D）阴性孕妇中,有10例在分娩中或分娩后回输了自体血（未输异体血）,未见不良输血反应发生,母婴状况良好,Apgar评分多为10分。另外有7例产妇除了回输自体血外,又输注了一定量的异体血。比较采血前后、回输前后、回输与未回输组以及回输自体血与回输自异体血四组血液指标变化情况,均显示差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论：贮存式自体输血在Rh（D）阴性孕妇分娩中是行之有效的输血方式,既解决了血源紧张的问题,尤其是对稀有血型患者,减少异体血的输注,又提高了输血的安全性和合理性,对母婴不会造成危险,值得推广。     

Autologous Blood Donation in Nonorthopaedic Surgical Procedures as a Blood Conservation Strategy

Autologous blood donation in many nonorthopaedic procedures is controversial. Our study of 408 consecutive such procedures could be divided into two groups. In group I, the anticipated probability for homologous blood transfusion was very low (less than 5%): vaginal hysterectomy and miscellaneous gynecologic procedures, obstetrical delivery, mammoplasty and cholecystectomy. In group II, the anticipated probability for homologous blood transfusion was high (greater than 5%): open heart and vascular surgery, neurosurgery, mastectomy, abdominal and radical hysterectomy, and extensive urologic procedures. We conclude that for procedures in which the blood transfusion probability is very low, autologous blood donation should not be encouraged; this practice should be promoted in procedures in which the blood transfusion probability is 'high' (i.e. greater than 5%), with emphasis on maximizing autologous blood collection in order to minimize homologous blood transfusion.     

心内直视手术中输自体血临床研究

１９８９～１９９３年的４年中，共进行心内直视手术时输自体血１７５５例（其中成人１５５５例，儿童２００例），共放出自体血１０５万ｍｌ，平均每例放血６００ｍｌ。患者年龄最小生后６２天，最大７４岁，体重最轻４．５ｋｇ，最重９８ｋｓ。本文推道了临床情况放血方法及一系列临床科研工作。此项工作培养了干部，节约了库血，减轻了患者经济负担和减少手术后肝炎发生的危险，应广为宣传应用。     

冠状动脉旁路移植术后自体血液回输减少血液制品的应用经验

目的总结非体外循环下冠状动脉旁路移植术（OPCABG）后应用自体血液回输以减少血液制品的经验。方法将2007年8月至2011年8月北华大学第二附属医院心脏外科44例OPCABG患者随机分为自体血回输组（试验组）和异体血输血组（对照组）,每组各22例。试验组应用非洗涤过滤式自体引流血回输;对照组未用自体引流血回输。结果试验组自体引流血液回输量（774．9±278．7）ml,输异体红细胞悬液（744．4±．375．5）ml;对照组输异体红细胞悬液（1200．0±357．9）ml。试验组回输自体血量占输血总量的27．8％～96．0％,平均减少了47．9％以上的异体血输入量。术后随访1个月,两组无一例新桥梗阻及血栓形成,无一例再发心绞痛症状。试验组与对照组输异体血量差异有统计学意义（P〈0．01）,而输异体血浆差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。结论OPCABG术后应用一次性回输器回收自体引流血可以显著减少异体血输入量。     

Patterns of Autologous Blood Use in Elective Orthopedic Surgery: Does the Availability of Autologous Blood Change Transfusion Behavior?

We studied the orthopedic surgery service at our institution to determine whether the mere availability of autologous blood (AB) affected transfusion practice. As a group, patients who had AB available received an average of 1.11 fewer red cell units per hospitalization than did patients with only homologous blood (HB) available. At every transfusion episode, those patients having AB available received fewer red cell units than did patients without AB available. Predeposit of autologous red cells was effective in protecting 77.6% of patients from HB exposure. The availability of autologous red cells resulted in an overall more conservative approach to transfusion.     

Influence of Autologous Blood Transfusion on Natural Killer and Lymphokine-Activated Killer Cell Activities in Cancer Surgery

Background and objectives: Immunosuppression associated with blood transfusion may influence postoperative infection rates. It may also affect the prognosis of patients treated surgically for colorectal cancer. To control this effect, study protocols have applied autologous blood donation programs, which are thought to be immunologically neutral. However, evidence has emerged that blood donation itself might have suppressive effects on natural killer (NK) cell activities. At present, there are no data available on the effects of autologous blood transfusion on NK or lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells. This might be of interest as LAK cells may be active in tumor control. Materials and methods: 26 patients who underwent surgical resection for colorectal cancer, were assigned at random into two groups: (1) autologous blood donation and transfusion, or (2) allogeneic blood transfusion. NK and LAK activities were determined before blood donation, at surgery, and on the 3rd and 8th postoperative day. Results: Blood donation induced a small decrease in NK and LAK activities. The postoperative courses of the two groups differed. In the allogeneic group, NK activity (?50%, p = 0.018) and LAK activity decreased (?60.7%, p = 0.043), whereas in the autologous group the decline in LAK was less pronounced (?33.7%, p = 0.091), and their NK activity even increased (+17.4%, p = 0.315). NK activity was modulated differently in the two study groups (0.0036). Differences in LAK activities were found between the 3rd and 8th day postoperatively (p = 0.354). Conclusions: In patients receiving autologous blood transfusion, postoperative suppressed NK and LAK activities were modulated. This implies that autologous blood transfusion is not immunologically neutral, but has an intrinsic immunomodulatory potential.     

Autologous blood salvage in the era of patient blood management

Almost 150 years after the first autologous blood transfusion was reported, intraoperative blood salvage has become an important method of blood conservation. The primary goal of autologous transfusion is to reduce or avoid allogeneic red blood cell transfusion and the associated risks and costs. Autologous salvaged blood does not result in immunological challenge and its consequences, provides a higher quality red blood cell that has not been subjected to the adverse effects of blood storage, and can be more cost‐effective than allogeneic blood when used for carefully selected surgical patients. Cardiac, orthopaedic and vascular surgery procedures with large anticipated blood loss can clearly benefit from the use of cell salvage. There are safety concerns in cases with gross bacterial contamination. There are theoretical safety concerns in obstetrical and cancer surgery; however, careful cell washing as well as leucoreduction filters makes for a safer autologous transfusion in these circumstances. Further studies are needed to determine whether oncologic outcomes are impacted by transfusing salvaged blood during cancer surgery. In this new era of patient blood management, where multimodal methods of reducing dependence on allogeneic blood are becoming commonplace, autologous blood salvage remains a valuable tool for perioperative blood conservation. Future studies will be needed to best determine how and when cell salvage should be utilized along with newer blood conservation measures.     

Use of recombinant human erythropoietin to enhance autologous blood donation in a patient with multiple red cell allo-antibodies and the anemia of chronic disease

We treated a patient with alcohol-induced cirrhosis, intractable pain from a defective hip prosthesis, and multiple red cell allo-antibodies with recombinant human erythropoietin (EPO) in order to facilitate collection of blood for autologous transfusion during an elective total hip revision. This patient had experienced a delayed transfusion reaction 4 months earlier after receiving least incompatible packed red cells for gastrointestinal bleeding. His blood could not be crossmatched because of the development of multiple antibodies to homologous blood given during previous surgery and several episodes of gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Following initiation of EPO therapy, there was a prompt and persistent increase in the reticulocyte count from a baseline of 1.6% to a maximum of 8.6%. This was accompanied by maintenance of the hematocrit between 32% and 38.5% despite withdrawal of seven units of autologous blood over the 45-day treatment period. Poor venous access and availability of blood bank personnel, not hematocrit level, were the limiting factors that determined how frequently blood could be collected. We conclude that EPO stimulated erythropoiesis in this patient with underlying anemia of chronic disease and facilitated harvest of autologous blood for elective surgery.     

Autologous transfusion and other approaches to reduce allogeneic blood exposure

When used as the sole source of transfused blood, the principal advantage of autologous blood transfusion is the avoidance of transmission of infectious agents and the avoidance of the purported adverse immunomodulatory effects of allogeneic transfusion. In the 1990s, however, the risks of transfusion-transmitted diseases have been greatly reduced, and estimates of the cost-effectiveness of pre-operative autologous blood donations now vary between 2470 dollars and 3,400,000 dollars per quality-adjusted year of life saved, depending on assumptions about the existence and magnitude of any adverse immunomodulatory effects of allogeneic transfusion. There is a paucity of randomized controlled trials evaluating the clinical outcomes and the cost-effectiveness of autologous transfusion procedures, and this situation is unlikely to change in the near future because of the difficulties in conducting such trials. This chapter reviews the available evidence on the efficacy, safety and cost-effectiveness of the three common autologous transfusion procedures, that is, pre-operative autologous blood donation, acute normovolaemic haemodilution, and intra-operative and post-operative blood recovery.     

Blood conservation strategies in major orthopaedic surgery: efficacy, safety and European regulations

Several major orthopaedic surgical procedures may result in significant blood loss and the need for allogeneic blood transfusion (ABT). However, overall concerns about adverse effects of ABT have prompted the review of transfusion practice and the search for transfusion alternatives to decrease or avoid the use of ABT. These strategies include the correction of perioperative anaemia, pharmacological and non-pharmacologic measures to reduce blood loss, preoperative autologous blood donation and perioperative red blood cell salvage. We have reviewed the efficacy and safety of these strategies and where appropriate offer evidence-based recommendations on their use in orthopaedic surgery. We also reviewed the European regulations on ABT alternatives. Pharmacological alternatives need to be used with a total adherence to European regulations in their legal and off-label use. The administration and use of pharmacological agents to stimulate erythropoiesis or reduce blood loss needs to be within the context of attempting to use allogenic blood in a rational manner. As for autologous blood, European Directives cover preoperative autologous blood donation, but not its clinical use, and perioperative red blood cell salvage devices, but not the product yielded by them. Therefore, the development of quality standards and good practice guidelines for perioperative red blood cell salvage, as well as its inclusion in the haemovigilance programme, is urgently needed. Finally, it is noteworthy that some recommendations given for ABT alternatives are not supported by a high level of evidence and that the goal of performing major orthopaedic surgical procedures without the use of ABT may be better accomplished by combining several of these techniques within a defined algorithm.     

Large Volume Apheresis of Autologous Plasma and Preparation of Autologous Fibrin Glue from the Plasma

Abstract: Autologous blood transfusion (ABT) is useful for prevention of undesirable effects of allogeneic blood transfusion. In our hospital, not only autologous whole blood but also autologous red blood cells, autologous fresh frozen plasma (Auto‐FFP), and autologous fibrin glue (Auto‐FG) are routinely produced for surgical patients. The Auto‐FG is prepared from plasma which is separated from manually collected whole blood. However, when a large volume of Auto‐FG is required, the plasma obtained by an apheresis method may be useful. Therefore, a pilot study was conducted to determine whether a collection of 2 U (160 ml) of red blood cells (RBCs) and 400 ml of plasma at 1 apheresis is acceptable. We first performed the apheresis on healthy donors, and then applied for autologous blood donation. The apheresis is safe. The collected plasma is used for the production of Auto‐FFP and Auto‐FG. The remaining RBCs also are used for ABT. The preparation of Auto‐FG is simple, and it is effective for the reduction of allogeneic fibrin glue.     

自体血液回输在心脏瓣膜替换手术中的应用

目的 探讨术中血液回输技术的安全性和效果,评价其在心脏瓣膜替换手术中的应用价值.方法 本研究共选人单个心脏瓣膜替换手术32例,随机分为2组.所有患者均于全身麻醉和体外循环下行心脏瓣膜替换手术.对两组患者术中出血量.术中自体血液回输量,异体血输入量,手术前、输血前、输血后血常规和动脉血气分析结果进行观测,记录输血并发症的情况.结果 两组术中出血量差异无统计学意义;两组患者术前、输血前、术后血红蛋白（HGB）、红细胞比积（HCT）比较,差异均无统计学意义;两组血气分析的pH值、血钾、乳酸比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;而两组库血输入量差异有统计学意义（P〈0.01）.两组均未观察到有输血并发症发生.结论 在体外循环下心脏瓣膜置换术中自体血液回输可有效地减少围术期自体血的丢失,补充血容量,维持有效循环,同时明显减少异体血的用量及并发症发生,是安全、有效的,有很高的临床应用价值.     

Autologous Blood Donation Preceding Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Operation in a Hemodialysis Patient

Abstract: A 67-year-old male hemodialysis patient with abdominal aortic aneurysm and triple vessel coronary heart disease required autologous blood donation because of his blood type of Rh(-) before cardiovascular surgery. We performed autologous red blood cell and plasma collection by the switch back method with recombinant human erythropoietin therapy during the 5 weeks before the operation. Autologous platelet collection was also made the day before the operation. These autologous blood donations were safely and successfully performed along with hemodialysis. There was some caution taken for these pro cedures. The ultrafiltration rate had to be adjusted for blood collection or blood transfusion during hemodialysis in order not to disturb fluid balance. It was necessary to monitor the hyperkalemia of the stored autologous packed red blood cells. For platelet collection, blood in the extracorporeal circuit had to be concentrated because of the presence of renal anemia. Coronary artery bypass graft was safely and successfully performed with the autologous blood only.     

Autologous Blood Donation Elective Surgery in Children

Studies were made on 59 children (cardiac 42, orthopaedic 13, miscellaneous 4) scheduled for autologous blood donation before elective surgery. The donor-patients' ages ranged from 3 to 15 years (mean 9.9 years) and their weights from 13 to 70 kg (mean 34 kg). All patients received 50–100 mg of oral iron sulphate per day. As a rule, about 10% of intravascular blood volume was drawn once a week. Before surgery, an average of 720 ml of autologous blood per patient was prepared. Two patients failed to donate autologous blood because of anxiety about the procedure; however, none of the donors was deferred due anaemia assoicated with the phlebotomy. Of the 53 patients undergoing surgery and participating in autologous predonation, 50 (94%) were able to avoid homologous blood transfusion. 600 ml of homologous blood were transfused to each of 2 orthopaedic patients and 400 ml to 1 cardiac patient. We conclude that a predeposit autologous transfusion programme is logistically possible in small children when the patients are cooperative.     

Blood usage for elective surgery. A reappraisal of the need for autologous transfusion

To assess the need for a pre-operative autologous transfusion programme in a large teaching hospital, a review of blood cross-matching and transfusion practice for three elective surgical procedures was undertaken. For hysterectomy, the cross-match rate was 28%, and the transfusion rate only 8%. For transurethral resection of prostate and hemicolectomy, all patients were cross-matched, but only 19% and 36%, respectively, transfused. Given these figures, an autologous transfusion programme was not felt to be cost-effective. Local audit is necessary before this can be ascertained for a given district, as is consideration of the likelihood of infectious hazards in the regional blood supply.     

自体输血对肠肿瘤者免疫球蛋白的影响研究

目的：探讨对肠肿瘤患者术中行等容稀释性自体输血（ANH）对患者围术期机体免疫球蛋白的影响。方法：选择肠肿瘤根治术患者30例,随机分为2组。等容稀释性自体输血组（Ⅰ组）：于麻醉后手术切皮前经桡动脉放血400ml,同时经静脉输入相当容量的羟乙基淀粉,术中或术后根据情况将患者自身血回输;（Ⅱ组）根据术中情况输异体悬浮红细胞2～3U。分别于术前、术后1、5d抽取静脉血,用单向免疫扩散法测定免疫球蛋白含量。结果：术后1d,IgA、lgG、IgM2组均减少,Ⅰ组术后5d各测定值基本恢复至正常水平,Ⅱ组术后5d仍然低下;IgM2组变化不显著,差异无统计学意义。结论：自体输血对肠肿瘤患者免疫球蛋白影响较小,而异体输血对肠肿瘤患者免疫球蛋白影响明显。围手术期自体输血较异体输血具有明显的优越性。     

Quality of harvested autologous platelets compared with stored donor platelets for use after cardiopulmonary bypass procedures

Platelet dysfunction has a major contribution in bleeding after cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and transfusion of platelets is frequently used to secure haemostasis. Allogeneic platelets prepared for transfusion are functionally impaired. Autologous platelets harvested preoperatively require a shorter storage time before transfusion and their use also avoids the risks associated with transfusion of allogeneic blood products. For the first time, we have compared the functional quality of autologous platelets with allogeneic platelets prepared by two methods, immediately before infusion. Platelet activation was assessed by P-selectin expression and fibrinogen binding using flow cytometry. We also monitored the effects of CPB surgery and re-infusion of autologous platelets on platelet function. Autologous platelet-rich plasma (PRP) contained a significantly lower (P < 0.05) percentage of P-selectin-positive and fibrinogen-positive platelets compared with allogeneic platelet preparations, and also contained a significantly higher (P < 0.05) percentage of responsive platelets. Allogeneic platelets prepared by donor apheresis were more activated and less responsive than those produced by centrifugation of whole blood. In patients' blood, the percentage of platelets expressing P-selectin or binding fibrinogen increased significantly after CPB (P < 0.05), while the percentage of platelets responsive to in vitro agonists was decreased (P < 0.05 in autologous transfusion patients), consistent with platelet activation during the procedure. The percentage of activated platelets decreased (statistically not significant) after re-infusion of autologous PRP. P-selectin expression had returned to pre-CPB levels 24 h post-operatively. Autologous platelet preparations display minimal activation, but remain responsive. Conservation of platelet function may contribute to the potential clinical benefits of autologous transfusion in cardiopulmonary bypass.