Looking at the dark and bright sides of identity formation: New insights from adolescents and emerging adults in Japan

The aim of the present study was to gain new insights into the dark and bright sides of identity formation with a sample of 1851 Japanese adolescents and emerging adults, applying a three-dimensional model of identity formation (i.e., commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment). By means of cluster analysis, we identified five statuses that strongly resembled statues extracted in prior research with Western youth: achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, diffusion, and searching moratorium. We found that each status reported a distinct profile in terms of personality and psychosocial problems. Importantly, we found that the searching moratorium status was adaptive in adolescence but not in emerging adulthood. These results suggest that the five statuses are replicable in Japanese adolescents and emerging adults, and that the searching moratorium status presents a combination of the bright and dark sides whose prevalence varies with age. Clinical implications for identity research and intervention programs are discussed.     

“Family Comes First!” Relationships with family and friends in Italian emerging adults

We conducted two studies to examine relationships with family and friends in Italian emerging adults, paying attention to the potential moderating role of gender and occupational status. In Study I, we aimed at capturing emerging adults' perspective on interactions with both family and friends by means of a qualitative approach. Participants were 39 emerging adults (51% males), who were interviewed individually or within a focus group. In Study II, we sought to examine how family and friend importance to identity were related to life satisfaction through a quantitative approach. Participants were 474 (47.3% males) emerging adults who filled a self-report questionnaire. Overall, findings indicated solid family ties and a strong impact of family importance to identity for life satisfaction. Results were independent of gender and occupational status (university students vs. workers). Thus, findings highlighted that in the Italian context young people's transition to adulthood is strongly intertwined with family relationships.     

Family structure and income during the stages of childhood and subsequent prosocial behavior in young adulthood

This study investigated whether family structure transition and low income are risk factors in the development of prosocial behavior. Models of young adults' prosocial behavior - charitable giving and volunteering - were estimated as functions of their family structure and income during the stages of childhood. Participants were a representative sample of 1011 American young adults. In the full sample, family structure transition during adolescence was negatively associated with subsequent charitable giving in young adulthood. Low income during adolescence was negatively associated with both giving and volunteering in young adulthood. European-American young men also exhibited a negative association between family structure transition during adolescence and subsequent volunteering. The results did not seem to describe African-American young adults. Keeping this qualification in mind, the results suggest that adolescence is a sensitive stage in the development of charitable giving and volunteering.     

Identity development as a buffer of adolescent risk behaviors in the context of peer group pressure and control

We examined identity development as a moderator of the relation between peer group pressure and control and adolescents' engagement in risk behaviors. Participants (n=1070; M(age)=15.45 years) completed a self-report measure of identity exploration, the degree to which they have explored a variety of self-relevant values, beliefs and goals, and identity commitment, the degree to which they have secured a personal identity. Participants further reported on their frequency of risk behaviors (substance use and general deviancy) and experienced peer group pressure and control. Results confirmed that identity commitment was a buffer of substance use and identity exploration was a buffer of general deviancy in more pressuring peer groups. In more controlling peer groups, teens with greater identity commitment engaged in less risk behavior than teens with low-identity commitment. Thus, identity development may be a suitable target to deter negative effects of peer pressure in high-risk adolescents.     

Relationship duration moderation of identity status differences in emerging adults' same-sex friendship intimacy

Previous research has not yielded consistent identity and intimacy associations for female and male emerging adults. Intimacy varies with time spent in a relationship, and relationship duration may explain variations in the identity process association with intimacy. Data from 278 female and 156 male emerging adults revealed relationship duration moderated the identity commitment and exploration associations with intimacy. Findings indicated longer relationship duration was associated with lower intimacy levels for high identity commitment/high exploration females, and longer relationship duration was associated with higher intimacy levels for high commitment/low exploration females. Findings also indicated longer relationship duration was associated with higher intimacy levels for high commitment/high exploration males, and longer relationship duration was associated with lower intimacy levels for low commitment/high exploration males. Findings are discussed with regards to the empirical importance of considering relationship characteristics when examining emerging adult identity process associations with friendship intimacy.     

Walking the walk: The moderating role of proactive parenting on adolescents' value-congruent behaviors

The current study longitudinally examined adolescents' internalization of values in four domains (drug use, prosocial, school, friends), and how these values were differentially related to behaviors (delinquency, prosocial behavior, school engagement, and deviant peer association) as a function of proactive parenting. Participants included 335 adolescents (M age of child at Time 2?=?12.28, SD?=?.99, 51% female) and their parents. Analyses examined associations between adolescents' values at Time 3 and corresponding behaviors at Time 4, and the moderating role of proactive parenting (assessed at Time 2 using cluster analysis). Results suggested that adolescents with the most consistent value-congruent behavior had parents who used deference or reasoned deference as an approach to proactive parenting, highlighting the importance of autonomy supportive parenting in the encouragement of self-generated values and corresponding behaviors. Discussion focused on value-congruent behaviors and associations between values and behaviors across domains.     

The influence of mental health problems on AIDS-related risk behaviors in young adults.

This paper explores how symptoms of mental health problems influence acquired immune deficiency syndrome-related risk behaviors, and how changes in those symptoms relate to risk behaviors engaged in by young adults. Repeated interviews with 602 youths since 1984 provide a history of change in behaviors. Mental health symptoms during adolescence (alcohol/drug [r = .28]; conduct disorder [r = .27]; depression [r = .16]; suicide [r = .14]; anxiety [r = .16]; and posttraumatic stress [r = .09]) are associated with higher numbers of risk behaviors (specifically, prostitution, use of intravenous drugs, and choice of a high-risk sex partner) during young adulthood. Changes in mental health symptoms between adolescence and young adulthood are related to the number of risk behaviors engaged in by young adulthood (total number of symptoms [B = .10], alcohol/drug abuse or dependence [B = .34], depression [B = .20], suicidality [B = .35], anxiety [B = .13], and posttraumatic stress [B = .14]). Changes in symptoms of mental health problems are associated specifically with those risk behaviors that are initiated primarily in young adulthood: intravenous drug use, prostitution, and choice of risky partners. The findings show that prevention and treatment of mental health problems are important components of preventive interventions for human immunodeficiency virus infection in high-risk teens and young adults.     

Identity processes and statuses in post-Soviet Georgia: Exploration processes operate differently

Identity formation is one of the main developmental tasks of emerging adulthood. Based on quantitative data on a five-dimensional model of identity formation, we concluded that the identity formation process has some different features in the Republic of Georgia than it does in many Western countries. Results obtained from young Georgian adults (N = 295, 82.6% female) yielded four exploration processes instead of three, which is in line with the recent Swiss findings. A key difference between Georgia and the Western contexts, however, is that exploration in breadth is highly correlated with ruminative exploration. Cluster analysis, which produced six identity clusters, also supported this pattern. Achievement, the most adjusted cluster in Western contexts, was relatively low on exploration in breadth. We discuss ways in which the Georgian transition from Soviet communism to a more globalized society may contribute to limited opportunities for identity exploration and may add some tension to the identity development process.     

Quality of Life in Parents of Young Adults with ASD: EpiTED Cohort

The impact of ASD on parental QOL was evaluated in the EpiTED cohort study at early adulthood. Two-third of parents of young adults with ASD (66.7%) reported that their QoL was at least moderately altered. The perceived impact of ASD on parental QoL was related to the young adults’ level of adaptive skills, as well as to symptom severity and the presence of challenging behaviors, which appeared to be the main risk factor. The study of change between adolescence and early adulthood showed that parents whose children had a decrease in challenging behaviors perceived a decreased impact on their QoL. These results argue for the importance to propose specific interventions to target associated challenging behaviors in ASD.     

Identity, prosocial behavior, and generative concern in German and Cameroonian Nso adolescents

Little is known about whether ego identity statuses have the same developmental concomitants in different cultural contexts. Thus, 159 German and 158 Cameroonian Nso adolescents aged 15-18 were recruited to test if associations between identity and generativity (i.e. the desire to create a positive legacy) and prosocial behavior (i.e. helpful and supportive behavior), respectively, are comparable. In both cultural samples, only identity achievement was positively linked with generative concern and prosocial tendencies. Integrating these and previous findings on the association between prosocial behavior and generativity, a partial mediation of the relation between identity achievement and generative concern through prosocial tendencies was hypothesized and confirmed for both cultural groups. Thus, there is an equivalent association between identity achievement, prosocial behavior, and generative concern in adolescents with widely different cultural background.     

Identity formation of Italian emerging adults living with parents: A narrative study

This study examines the links between family and identity processes of Italian emerging adults living with their parents. Examining the impact of family is important in the countries of Mediterranean area where also emerging adults live with parents for a prolonged time. In Italy living with parents is associated with a specific “delay syndrome” in the transition to adulthood. Participants consisted of 20 Italian emerging adults attending second and last years of university, in a large Italian city (Naples). All participants were subjected to an open interview, based on the thematic life story. Our findings indicate that parents are perceived as active agents of identity, responsive and supportive of autonomy; they encourage the active involvement of young people in the work of identity formation. Despite this, parental impact produces different configurations that could shed light on the pathways of Italian emerging adults' transition to adulthood. The above configurations are discussed using exemplars.     

Peer status beyond adolescence: Types and behavioral associations

This study investigates the types and behavioral associations of peer status in school-bound young adults in the Netherlands. We argue that adolescent peer popularity and its link with aggressive and norm-breaking behavior result from adolescents' desire to create an image of maturity among their peers. We expect that in young adults who are approaching working life, peer status is defined by affective measures of status and prosociality rather than adverse behaviors. Analyses revealed a three cluster solution of (1) liked, (2) liked-popular and (3) neutral members of the peer group, showing that status is primarily defined by being well-liked, though popularity remains relevant. Status was primarily associated with prosocial behavior, especially for females. Peer status in young males remained associated with overt aggressive behavior.     

Suicidal behaviors among young adults: risk factors during development from early childhood to adolescence

Suicidal behaviors are prevalent among young people. Numerous risk factors have been implicated in their development. In the framework of the longitudinal Mannheim Study of Children at Risk, 311 young adults (143 males, 168 females) aged 19-23 years were investigated in order 1) to determine the significance of different risk factors during development in predicting suicidal behaviors in young adulthood, 2) to identify potential risk factors discriminating between suicidal ideation and suicide attempts, and 3) to examine whether the effect of early risk factors was mediated by later occurring predictors. Young adults with suicidal behaviors displayed a number of abnormalities during development, including high load of early family adversity, suicidal ideation and psychiatric problems in childhood and adolescence, as well as low self esteem, poor school functioning, higher levels of novelty seeking, and enhanced affiliations with deviant peers in adolescence. Independent contributions to predicting suicidal behaviors in young adults were provided by early family adversity, suicidal ideation during childhood and adolescence, and low self esteem (with regard to suicidal ideation) and novelty seeking (with regard to suicide attempt), respectively. The impact of early adversity was mediated by child and adolescent externalizing disorders and low self esteem in adolescence. Possible implications of these findings for the prevention and treatment of suicidal behaviors are discussed.     

Trajectories of prosocial behaviors conducive to civic outcomes during the transition to adulthood: The predictive role of family dynamics

The current study explored the prediction of civic engagement by diverse trajectories of prosocial behaviors as well family dynamics (i.e., filial self-efficacy and relational parent–child support) across four times of assessment (from age 16–17 to age 22–23) during the transition to adulthood. Three different trajectories of prosocial behaviors were identified for 686 Italian youths: high-increasing (18%), medium-stable (48%), and low-stable (34%). An increasing pattern of change in prosocial behaviors was predicted by filial self-efficacy at age 16–17, which in turn mediated longitudinal relations to civic engagement and civic values at age 22–23. Results highlighted that during the transition to adulthood youths' beliefs about their ability to negotiate with their parents without losing autonomy and relatedness are relevant in promoting prosocial behaviors and civic involvement, especially in the context of Mediterranean countries.     

Minority Sexual Orientation,Gender Identity Status and Suicidal Behavior: Serial Indirect Effects of Hope,Hopelessness and Depressive Symptoms

Death by suicide, and suicidal behaviors, are a significant public mental health problem, and individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered and questioning (LGBTQ), may be at increased risk. Potential underlying mechanisms of this association are unknown, but may involve the impact of LGBTQ status on future orientation and mood. Our purpose was to determine the influence of sexual identity, sequentially, on cognitive and emotional functioning, and consequent relation to suicidal behavior. In a sample of 349 college students, we used serial mediation models to investigate the relation between self-identification as LGBTQ and suicidal behavior, with hope and hopelessness as first-order mediators and depression as a second order mediator. Supporting hypotheses, we found that LGBTQ status was related to less hope and greater hopelessness and, in serial fashion, to depressive symptoms and consequent suicidal behavior. Our findings may have clinical implications. Resolution of hopelessness and depression, and promotion of hopefulness, perhaps via Motivational Interviewing and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy strategies, such as goal-setting, may reduce suicidal risk in LGBTQ young adults.     

Exploring dual identification among Muslim-American emerging adults: a mixed methods study

This mixed methods study explored dual identification among Muslim-American emerging adults of immigrant origin. A closer look was taken at the relationship between American and Muslim identifications and how this relationship was influenced by experiences of discrimination, acculturative and religious practices, and whether it varied by gender. Data were gathered from 97 Muslim Americans (ages 18-25) who completed a survey and produced identity maps, a pictorial representation of hyphenated identities. The findings showed that young people found a way of allowing their Muslim and American identities to co-exist, and only a small minority of the participants seemed to experience identity conflict. While religiosity was the only predictor of Muslim identification, young peoples' identification with mainstream United States culture was predicted by discrimination-related stress and acculturative practices. Gender moderated the relationship between Muslim and American identities in both survey measures and identity maps.     

Early childhood temperament predicts substance use in young adults

Behavioral inhibition (BI) is an important early childhood marker of risk for later psychiatric problems. The current 20-year prospective, longitudinal study focused on individual differences in this early temperament and adolescent brain function. As adolescents, 83 participants initially identified in infancy with the temperament of BI were assessed using functional imaging to examine striatal responses to incentives. Five years later, as young adults, these participants provided self-report of their substance use. Our findings show that children''s early temperament interacts with their striatal sensitivity to incentives in adolescence to predict their level of substance use in young adulthood. Those young adults who, as children, showed the highest levels of BI reported the greatest substance use if, as adolescents, they also exhibited striatal hypersensitivity to incentives. These longitudinal data delineate one developmental pathway involving early biology and brain mechanisms for substance use in young adulthood.     

Possible Link Between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Reproductive Complications

BACKGROUND: Initially conceptualized as a disorder of childhood, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is now emerging as a chronic disorder that may present in adolescence and persist into adulthood. Failure to recognize this common disorder in childhood may lead to disabling comorbid symptoms and a poor long-term prognosis in adulthood. Young adults with undiagnosed ADHD experience significant psychiatric comorbidity, including high rates of drug dependency and lower levels of global functioning. The public health consequences of poor impulse control (e.g., delinquency, criminal activity, drug use, risky sexual behaviors, high-risk pregnancies) are emerging, and a link between ADHD and poverty seems highly probable. CASE REPORT: I explore the sexual behaviors, and their consequences, of a young adolescent female. Her reproductive complications led me to consider undiagnosed ADHD. CONCLUSION: The long-term prognosis when ADHD is unrecognized and untreated in the adolescent is discouraging: maternal and perinatal morbidity may be anticipated and are biologically plausible. The actual assessment of risk in the setting of pregnancy and unrecognized ADHD remains largely unknown, and the benefits of timely diagnosis and appropriate treatment of ADHD during pregnancy have yet to be addressed. The following case presentation suggests an association between undiagnosed ADHD and reproductive complications.     

Interpersonal identity formation in conversations with close friends about dating relationships

The present study explores how close same-sex friendship groups participate in the co-construction of identities in the interpersonal domain during young adulthood. Participants included 24 same-sex college student friendship triads (12 male and 12 female; 72 total participants) who took part in semi-structured group interviews that elicited stories about conversations with their friends about dating relationship problems. Qualitative thematic analysis revealed five common responses to dating problems evidencing identity work in the context of friends' conversations. These responses included relating the issue to one's own experiences, providing validation and encouragement, joking about the problem, offering advice, and providing concrete instrumental support. Results are interpreted with regard to gender differences and similarities as well as the social context of college and developmental context of emerging adulthood. The findings identify ways in which young adults are actively co-constructing and re-evaluating their interpersonal identities within conversations with close same-sex friends.     

Risk taking,sensation seeking and personality as related to changes in substance use from adolescence to young adulthood

IntroductionThis study examined changes in substance use from adolescence to young adulthood as related to adolescents’ risk taking, sensation seeking, antisocial activities, and personality traits.MethodsChilean youth (N = 890, 52% female) were studied in adolescence (14.5 and 16.2 years) and young adulthood (M age 21.3 years). Risk taking was assessed via a laboratory-based performance task (Balloon Analogue Risk Task), and self-administered questionnaires assessed sensation seeking, antisocial behaviors, personality and substance use.ResultsFrequent involvement in sensation seeking and antisocial activities were associated with increased odds of continued marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood and of illicit substance use at young adulthood. High risk taking was associated with a reduced likelihood of discontinuing marijuana use at young adulthood, and high agreeableness and conscientiousness were associated with reduced likelihood of new onset marijuana use and illicit substance use at young adulthood.ConclusionsResults highlight specific risk-taking tendencies and personality characteristics that relate to initiating, continuing, or discontinuing substance use at entry into adulthood. Sensation seeking and involvement in antisocial activities were the two foremost risk factors for continued use, which is a forecaster of drug dependence. Findings suggest potential prevention and intervention targets for abstaining from or discontinuing substance use as youth transition to adulthood.