Pathophysiology of gastroesophageal reflux and distal esophageal motility in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease

We investigated the mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and esophageal motility during endogenous esophageal acid exposure in 17 patients with reflux disease alone (age range 3-20 months) (group A) and in 10 patients with reflux disease complicated by esophagitis (age range 4-19 months) (group B), by simultaneous recording distal esophageal sphincter relaxation was the predominant mechanism of reflux in both groups of subjects; however, it was more frequent in group B patients (Bpts), whereas reflux episodes due to appropriate sphincter relaxation were detected more frequently in group A patients (Apts). During endogenous acid exposure, primary peristalsis was the most frequent esophageal motor event in all patients; furthermore, its amplitude was significantly higher in Apts as compared with Bpts. Primary peristalsis was more efficacious (rise of intraluminal pH by at least 0.5 unit) in patients with reflux disease alone, whereas nonspecific motor irregularities were more common in children with reflux esophagitis. It is concluded that the major mechanism of GER in patients with reflux esophagitis is an inappropriate sphincter relaxation; reflux due to appropriate sphincter relaxation is associated with less severe reflux disease; and patients with esophagitis exhibit a deranged esophageal motility during spontaneous acid exposure.     

小儿胃食管反流病的治疗

胃食管反流（gastroesophageal reflux,GER）是指胃内容物包括从十二指肠流入胃的胆盐和胰酶反流入食管,可分为病理性和生理性,生理性反流可发生在正常的儿童,空腹或睡眠的情况下不发生反流;病理性反流是发作频繁或持续,导致了食管炎、食管不适的症状或呼吸道疾病等。胃食管反流的治疗是一个较长的过程,包括改变生活方式、内科药物治疗和外科手术治疗。要根据对患儿生活质量（尤其与健康相关的生活质量）的影响和治疗的经济性来选择治疗方式和药物。儿童大多数病理性反流经保守治疗,能获得满意的效果。     

动态胃、食管双pH监测小儿胃食管反流

目的 判断小儿胃食管反流病（GERD）的类型,提高GERD的诊断率。方法 采用晶体锑双pH微电极对临床疑诊GERD患儿65例进行食管下段和胃底部pH值24h动态监测。结果 29例（44．6％）有酸性胃食管反流,4例（6．1％）有碱性胃食管反流,总检出率50．7％,两组各项反流指标与对照组相比差异有显著意义。结论 动态胃、食管双pH监测能较准确地判定反流的有无及其类型,并提高GERD的诊断率。     

Mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux and gastroesophageal reflux disease

Gastroesophageal reflux is a physiological phenomenon, occurring with different severity and duration in different individuals. Reflux occurs when this normal event results in the occurrence of symptoms/signs or complications. The pathophysiology of gastroesophageal reflux is complex and diverse, since it is influenced by factors that are genetic, environmental (e.g., diet smoking), anatomic, hormonal, and neurogenic. However, many mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Future research should focus on a better understanding of the physiology of the upper and lower esophageal sphincters, and of gastric motility. The afferent and efferent neural pathways and neuropharmacologic mediators of transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations and gastric dysmotility require further study. The role of anatomic malformations such as hiatal hernia in children has been underestimated. While therapeutic possibilities are greater in number and largely improved, the outcomes of some treatments are far from satisfactory in many cases. In addition to development of new forms of treatment, research should address better use of currently available medical and surgical treatments.     

小儿慢性咳嗽与胃食管反流的关系

目的探讨小儿慢性咳嗽与胃食管反流(GER)的关系。方法对170例慢性咳嗽患儿进行24h食管pH监测,32例无症状小儿作为对照。结果病例组各项食管酸反流指标如酸反流次数、反流≥5min次数、最长反流时间、酸性反流指数及Boix-Ochoa综合评分均高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(Z=3.025～4.661,P均<0.01)。根据GER诊断标准,病例组GER检出率为37.1%(63/170例),高于对照组的3.1%(1/32例),差异有统计学意义(χ2=14.327,P<0.01)。2个月～1岁组、～3岁组和>3岁组的GER阳性率分别为47.4%(27/57例)、41.5%(17/41例)和26.4%(19/72例),差异有统计学意义(χ2=6.453,P<0.05)。结论GER与小儿慢性咳嗽关系密切,尤其是3岁以下的婴幼儿;食管pH监测对于明确小儿慢性咳嗽的原因有重要的临床价值。     

Helicobacter pylori infection and gastroesophageal reflux in asthmatic children

The aim of this article is to investigate the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori (HP) infection, frequency of gastroesophageal reflux (GER), existence of atopy and levels of serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) in children with bronchial asthma. One hundred and thirty seven children who were diagnosed as bronchial asthma and/or wheezy child aged between 1 and 17 years were enrolled into the study. Peripheral venous blood samples were obtained to determine the total IgE and HP IgG antibody levels. GER was evaluated by the scintigraphic method and the presence of atopy was investigated by skin prick test. The study was conducted in 86 (62.8%) boys and 51 (37.2%) girls. HP IgG antibody levels were found negative in 125 (91.2%) and positive in 12 (8.8%) cases. GER was detected in 73 (53.7%) of the children. Forty-one (37.3%) children were accepted as atopic according to skin prick test results. The average total IgE levels of the participants was 168.89 +/- 270.76 IU/ml. A significant difference could not be determined related to GER, atopy frequency and serum IgE levels between the cases who had HP antibody positivity or not. The present findings suggest that the rate of HP antibody positivity is low in patients with bronchial asthma and a significant difference could not be determined in GER, and atopy between patients with positive and negative HP antibodies. High atopy frequency found in our patient group raises the question of whether allergic diseases can be protective against fecal-oral infectious diseases.     

US in the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux in children

Several techniques have been used to diagnose gastroesophageal reflux (GER) in children, but no single test is sufficiently accurate to completely investigate the problem. Gastroesophageal US has been described as a widely available, noninvasive and sensitive method. It provides morphological and functional information, but its role in the diagnosis of GER in children is still debated. In this paper we review diagnostic approaches to GER in children. We focus on current use of US in the management of children with suspected GER. Reports suggest that US allows exclusion of several non-GER causes of symptoms and that it provides morphological and functional data with high sensitivity and positive predictive value for the diagnosis of GER. Sonographic assessment of findings such as abdominal esophageal length, esophageal diameter, esophageal wall thickness and gastroesophageal angle provide important diagnostic indicators of reflux and related to the degree of GER. There is a need for standardization of the procedure and for defining diagnostic criteria.     

Seizure disorder as a risk factor for gastroesophageal reflux in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities

The proportion of children with severe neurodevelopmental disabilities, in whom symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux develop after gastrostomy placement, has not been well studied. The medical records of children who received a gastrostomy tube (with or without a simultaneous antireflux procedure) at our institution between 1987 and 1997 were reviewed to identify neurologically related diagnoses at the time of the gastrostomy, diagnostic tests ordered to detect reflux, and dates and reasons for re-admissions within 2 years of discharge. Of 102 patients studied, 37 received a gastrostomy tube alone. Complete follow-up data were available for 30 of these patients, 7 of whom (23%) required subsequent antireflux surgery within 2 years. Patients with a seizure disorder had greater than a 4-fold risk of re-admission for this operation compared with other patients (57% [4/7] vs. 13% [3/23]; P=0.03). In a child with severe neurodevelopmental disability, the existence of a seizure disorder at the time of a gastrostomy operation increases the risk of subsequently requiring an antireflux procedure by a factor of 4.     

Results of the gastroesophageal reflux assessment in wheezy children

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is implicated in the pathogenesis of respiratory symptoms in childhood. It should be taken into account especially in the differential diagnosis of children presenting with wheezing. Although, oesophageal pH monitorisation has been reported to be the best technique in the evaluation of GER, radionuclide studies have also been shown to be very sensitive recently. In this study, 82 children presenting with recurrent wheezing (n=74) and/or vomiting (n=28) (mean age 17.4 months; range 3–48 months) were evaluated. GER scintigraphy was performed to determine the frequency of GER. GER was determined in 18 of the 82 cases (21.9%). The GER was found in 21.1% of children with recurrent wheezing and in 16.6% of children suffering from recurrent vomiting. GER scintigraphy should be kept in mind in the evaluation of children with the complaint of recurrent wheezing since it is a noninvasive and easily applicable method.     

Association of lipid-laden alveolar macrophages and gastroesophageal reflux in children

The association of lipid-laden alveolar macrophages (LLAM) and gastroesophageal reflux (GER) was investigated prospectively in 115 patients in two groups. Group 1 included 74 children with chronic respiratory tract disorders and documented GER by prolonged esophageal pH monitoring, barium esophagram, and esophagoscopy; group 2 included 41 children with chronic respiratory tract disorders without GER. LLAM were present in 63 (85%) and eight (19%) children from groups 1 and 2, respectively (P less than 0.0001). Thus a strong association between the presence of LLAM and GER in children with chronic respiratory tract disorders was established. We suggest that LLAM from bronchial lavage may be a useful marker for tracheal aspiration in children with GER in whom chronic lung disease may subsequently develop.     

Bronchopulmonary aspiration syndrome and gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children

The analysis of 26 esophageal and pulmonary scintiscans in 21 infants aged 1–15 months and 5 children aged 3.5–8 years revealed a positive pulmonary image several hours after ingestion of radioactive tracer in 17 cases. Despite false-positive and false-negative results this non-invasive technique is the only available means of proving the role of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) in pulmonary pathology. Offprint requests to: D. Berger at the above address     

小儿胃食管反流病诊断进展

小儿胃食管反流病（GERD）临床表现多样,有典型症状、非典型症状和消化道外症状之分。在基层医院诊断一般依赖病史、典型症状和体格检查。反流诊断问卷可用于初筛。食管胃钡餐造影能显示胃肠道的解剖结构异常。食管pH监测、Bravo胶囊无线pH监测、Bilitec2000胆红素监测、阻抗结合pH测定等可证实有无反流。胃镜检查和食管黏膜活检常作为诊断反流性食管炎和Barrett食管的首选方法。食管动力功能检查有助于了解GER的病理生理基础和发病机制。胃食管B型超声和食管核素测定可用于评价胃排空,而核素扫描还可确认有无肺部吸入。临床上必须根据需要选择适当的检查方法和诊断程序,提高诊断水平。