数字化与虚拟现实技术在皮瓣移植中的应用

目的研究数字化与虚拟现实技术在股前外侧皮瓣解剖设计与可视化中的应用。方法①应用“虚拟中国人”男性3号数据集,在薄层断面图像上观察旋股外侧动脉的主要解剖结构,应用Amira 3．1 (TGS)软件对股前外侧皮瓣结构进行计算机三维重建并立体显示。②明胶一氧化铅混悬液灌注的新鲜成人下肢标本1具,行连续螺旋CT扫描,观测旋股外侧动脉分布及彼此间的吻合情况,应用Amira 3．1软件对股前外侧皮瓣结构进行计算机三维重建并立体显示。结果重建的数字化模型可准确反映股前外侧皮瓣的解剖学结构特点。结论重建的图像可以提供正常股前外侧皮瓣三维动态解剖,为临床教学术前皮瓣设计提供了直观的数字化解剖依据；同时可为下一步虚拟手术的设计奠定良好的基础。     

三种人体数据集的腓骨瓣三维可视化应用研究

目的 研究三种人体数据集的腓骨瓣三维可视化应用. 方法 ①健康自愿者2人,经肘静脉注射造影剂,使用64排多层螺旋CT进行双下肢扫描,观察腓动脉及其分支分布及彼此间的吻合情况,将下肢二维灰度.DICOM格式图像以三维体数据的形式输入计算机,应用Amira4.1软件对腓动脉及腓骨的结构进行三维重建并立体显示.②取新鲜捐献尸体1具,采用改良的明胶-氧化铅灌注术经腹主动脉灌注,灌注后对双下肢行连续螺旋CT扫描,观察腓动脉及其分支的分布情况.利用Amira4.1软件对腓动脉及其分支结构进行三维重建并立体显示.③应用"虚拟中国人"(VCH)男性3号数据集,在薄层断面图像上观察小腿主要解剖结构,应用Amira4.1软件对小腿主要结构进行计算机三维重建并立体显示. 结果 运用Amira4.1图像处理软件,在三维表面重建的图像中可清晰地观察到外科腓骨瓣各解剖结构的形态,特别是腓动脉的分支情况和体表的投影得到很好的显示.利用软件的Movie Maker模板创建电影文件,将其制作为电影,画面清晰流畅,可直观、立体地显示形态特征. 结论 三种数据集重建的图像可以提供正常腓骨瓣三维动态解剖,对腓骨瓣的临床试验、基础研究、临床训练和手术规划具有重要应用价值.     

虚拟人的腰丛神经断层解剖学及可视化研究

目的观测“虚拟中国人”（virtual Chinese human,VCH）女性Ⅰ号、男性Ⅲ号腰丛神经连续横断面的走行,建立腰丛神经的可视化数字模型。方法应用“虚拟中国人”女性Ⅰ号（VCH—FⅠ）和男性Ⅲ号（VCH．Mm）数据集,在薄层断面图像上观察腰丛神经的构成及其与腰大肌和周围血管的关系,应用Amira3．1（WGS）软件对腰丛神经及其周围结构进行计算机三维重建并立体显示。结果在VCH-FⅠ和VCH—MⅢ的薄层断面图像上可以清楚地显示腰丛神经的主要结构,重建的数字化模型可准确地反映腰丛神经解剖学结构特点。结论VCH—FⅠ和VCH—MⅢ数据集能够提供完整精确的腰丛神经断面解剖,重建的数字化模型为腰丛神经损伤的影像诊断和外科治疗提供了良好的形态学依据。     

腰骶丛神经的断层解剖学及可视化初步研究

目的 观测“虚拟中国人”(virtual Chinese Human，VCH)Ⅰ号女性腰骶丛神经连续横断面的走行，建立腰骶丛神经的可视化数字模型?方法 应用虚拟中国人女Ⅰ号(VCH-F Ⅰ)数据集，在薄层断面图像上观察腰骶丛神经的构成及其与周围血管的关系，应用Amira 3．1(TGS)软件对腰骶丛神经进行计算机三维重建并立体显示。结果 在VCH Femalel的骨盆薄层断面图像上可以清楚地显示了腰骶丛神经及其主要分支和盆腔的其它结构，重建的数字化模型可准确的反映腰骶丛神经的解剖学结构特点。结论 VCH Female Ⅰ号数据集能够提供完整精确的腰骶丛神经断面解剖，为腰骶丛神经损伤的影像诊断和外科治疗提供了良好的形态学依据?     

数字化三维重建技术在股前外侧皮瓣血供及其可视化中的应用

目的探讨数字化三维重建技术在股前外侧皮瓣血供与可视化中的应用。方法①健康志愿者6人经肘正中静脉注射造影剂，使用64排多层螺旋CT进行盆腔及双下肢扫描，观察旋股外侧动脉分布及彼此间的吻合情况，将大腿二维灰度．DICOM格式图像以三维体数据的形式输入计算机，应用Amira3．1软件对股前外侧皮瓣结构进行三维重建并立体显示。②明胶一氧化铅混悬液的灌注新鲜成人标本2具，16排多层螺旋CT进行全身连续扫描，观测旋股外侧动脉分布及彼此间的吻合情况，同法应用Amira3.1软件对股前外侧皮瓣结构进行三维重建并立体显示。结果重建的数字化模型可准确反映股前外侧皮瓣血供的解剖学结构。结论采用数字化三维重建技术可以提供正常股前外侧皮瓣的三维动态解剖，为其他皮瓣的数字化重建提供了参考。     

虚拟中国人女Ⅰ号(VCH-FⅠ)臂丛神经可视化初步研究

目的观测“虚拟中国人”(VirtualChineseHuman,VCH)Ⅰ号女性臂丛神经连续横断面的走行,建立臂丛神经的可视化数字模型。方法应用虚拟中国人女Ⅰ号(VCH-FⅠ)数据集,在颈部薄层断面图像上观察臂丛神经与椎管、脊髓、横突孔、椎动脉等结构,应用Amira3.1(TGS)软件对臂丛神经进行计算机三维重建并立体显示。结果在VCH-FⅠ的颈部薄层断面图像上清楚地显示了臂丛神经以及颈段其它的结构,重建的数字化模型可准确的反映臂丛神经的解剖学结构特点。结论VCH-FⅠ数据集能够提供完整精确的臂丛神经解剖,为臂丛神经损伤的影像诊断和外科治疗提供了良好的形态学依据。     

数字化技术在骨科的临床应用

目的 探讨数字骨科学理论及数字化技术在骨科中的应用. 方法 数字骨科解剖学:获取健康成人下肢连续薄层CT扫描数据,三维重建股前外侧皮瓣结构并立体显示;获取健康成人髋髓膝、踝关节连续薄层CT扫描数据,三维重建各关节后均建股骨头、膝关节、胫骨平台、踝关节中心,三维重建下肢的机械轴线.数字骨科手术设计与应用:获取12例成人单侧髋关节发育不良患者骨盆连续螺旋CT扫描数据,三维构建患侧髋关节解剖旋转中心,设计髋臼侧假体最佳置入导航模板并应用于临床,验证结果.虚拟骨科仿真:获取8例男性志愿者腰椎螺旋CT扫描数据,三维重建L4.5椎体、椎间盘及韧带,建立Wallis系统模型,按标准手术模式与腰椎模型拟合,进行有限元前处理:选取单侧先天性髋关节脱位儿童1例,模拟Pcmbc rton截骨矫形过程. 结果 重建的数字化模型可准确反映解剖学结构特点,快速成型导航模板有较好的匹配性,且操作易行、可靠;虚拟仿真可以再现手术方式及过程. 结论 重建的图像可以提供骨关节正常三维动态解剖,为“数字骨科学”概念的建立奠定了良好的基础.     

数字化股前外侧皮瓣的可视技术在临床中的初步应用

目的 探讨股前外侧皮瓣的三维重建技术在临床中的初步应用. 方法 对需游离股前外侧皮瓣创面修复的8例患者,术前注射造影剂后采用CT或MRI扫描,应用Amira 4.1软件对股前外侧皮瓣结构进行三维重建,构建患者个性化皮瓣.根据三维构建的个性化皮瓣,于患者股部进行股前外侧皮瓣的点、线、面描记,用以指导手术切取.结果 三维重建患者个性化皮瓣8例,所重建个性化股前外侧皮瓣,能够清晰显示血管、皮肤及其毗邻结构的三维关系.其中5例显示皮瓣主要穿支及主干,与术中检查相符;3例显示皮瓣主干血管,但穿支显示不清,术中探查2例最大穿支血管约0.5mm,1例穿支均小于0.3 mm.术后7例皮瓣全部成活,1例皮瓣边缘出现部分坏死. 结论 通过血管造影下肢CT或MRI扫描,采用数字化三维重建技术可以提供股前外侧皮瓣的三维动态解剖,重建皮瓣能够准确指导术中的皮瓣切取.     

数字化技术在隐动脉皮瓣血供的可视化及其临床初步应用

目的 探讨数字化技术在隐动脉皮瓣血供的可视化及其临床初步应用. 方法 明胶-氧化铅混悬液灌注的新鲜成人尸体标本2具,进行16排多层螺旋CT全身连续扫描,提取大腿二维灰度.dicom格式图像并导入Amira 5.4.1软件,对隐动脉结构进行三维重建并立体显示,确定构建隐动脉皮瓣的范围.对2010年6月至2011年8月收治的6例(6侧)胫前皮肤缺损、骨外露患者进行64排螺旋CT扫描,将扫描.dicom格式图像导入Mimics 14.0软件,对大腿和膝关节血管、特别是膝降动脉和隐动脉进行连续观察,三维表面重建隐动脉并测量,根据患者创面缺损面积进行个性化隐动脉皮瓣三维构建,再应用于临床治疗. 结果 6例患者获8 ～ 24个月(平均18个月)随访,重建的数字化模型可准确反映隐动脉的解剖学结构.所有患者显示的皮瓣为主要穿支及主干,隐动脉起点到膝关节间隙的平均距离为(119.2±9.6) mm,隐动脉起点直径平均为(1.5±0.3)mm;本组皮瓣切取范围为8.0cm×5.0cm～20.0 cm×8.0 cm;皮瓣及供区植皮均顺利成活,膝关节屈曲120°～ 140.,伸直0～ 10°.结论 采用数字化三维重建技术可以提供隐动脉三维动态解剖,为临床应用隐动脉皮瓣移植提供了可能.     

踝关节与跟骨骨折数字化虚拟可视重建的初步研究

目的探讨数字化虚拟可视技术在足踝部骨折建模及其临床应用的可行性与价值。方法利用“虚拟中国人”女1号及足踝部骨折患者CT扫描图像及其数据集，将数据导人相应软件，重建足踝部正常解剖结构的三维可视模型，选取踝关节骨折、跟骨骨折患者进行内固定手术的初步计算机模拟并立体显示。结果重建了足踝部正常解剖及踝关节、跟骨骨折的三维可视模型，准确反映出其解剖学特点、骨折移位的方向和程度，并可进行任意旋转、剖切等观察和操作，初步实现踝关节骨折内固定手术的计算机模拟。结论数字化虚拟可视技术的应用可以提供三维解剖模型，可能为足踝部骨折的数字化分型、临床诊治方式的选择与改进等提供更为精准的解剖学及影像学依据。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.