Longitudinal changes in adolescent cigarette smoking behavior: Onset and cessation

Employing a 1-year longitudinal design, this study examined factors related to change in adolescent smoking. Predictors of smoking onset differed from predictors of continued smoking, underscoring the importance of studying factors related to adolescent smoking onset separately from mechanisms associated with changes in smoking among current smokers. Peer smoking predicted continuation of smoking after smoking initiation. Smokers received over 26 times more offers to smoke than did nonsmokers, suggesting that smokers attempting to quit need effective refusal skills to be successful. Habitual smoking was found to develop slowly, providing a substantial time window for refusal skill training and other prevention efforts. Predictors of smoking onset differed by developmental level. Peer smoking and marijuana use were stronger predictors of smoking onset for high-school students, and number of cigarette offers predicted better among middle-school students. Parent variables were not significant predictors of later smoking. Intention to smoke was unrelated to onset and was redundant with pretest smoking behavior in predicting cessation.This research was supported in part by Grants: HD13409 and HD15825 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, CA38273 from the National Cancer Institute, and DA037706 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse.     

香烟烟雾暴露对未成年小鼠齿状回神经发生和小胶质细胞的影响

为探讨香烟烟雾暴露(cigarette smoking exposure,CSE)对未成年小鼠的神经发生及学习记忆的影响,本研究用亲和组织化学方法,以5-溴脱氧尿苷(5-bromodeoxyuridine,BrdU)和西非单叶豆同工凝集素-B4(Bandeirae SimplicifoliaIsolectin-B4,BSI-B4)分别标记新生细胞和小胶质细胞(microglia,MG),观察了CSE小鼠齿状回内的神经发生及MG数目的变化,并通过Morris水迷宫训练测验其空间学习能力。结果显示:CSE下小鼠齿状回内的神经发生降低,MG数目显著减少;而在水迷宫的学习中,CSE组的逃避潜伏期亦明显长于对照组(P<0.05)。上述结果表明CSE损害了未成年小鼠齿状回内的神经发生,抑制了MG的激活,同时小鼠的空间学习能力与神经发生及激活的MG数量平行变化。此结果提示CSE造成的学习能力降低可能与齿状回神经发生及MG减少有关。     

The prevention of cigarette smoking in children: Two- and three-year follow-up comparisons of four prevention strategies

Recent studies have suggested that a prevention program that addresses the social influences that encourage smoking can be effective in deterring cigarette use by adolescents. This study presents 1-, 2-, and 3-year follow-up results from two studies which evaluated three variations of the social influences curriculum and compared them to a health consequences program and a usual-care comparison group. These results suggest that a peer-led, social influences program can restrain smoking among both baseline nonsmokers and baseline experimental smokers at 2 years postintervention. Analyses of attrition data suggest no evidence to threaten the internal validity of these findings, although their generalizability to baseline smokers may be limited.This work was supported by a contract from the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (N01 HD 92831) and by grants from the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (R01 HD 12801), the National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01 DA/HD 03205), and the National Cancer Institute (R01 CA 38275)     

Prevention of cigarette smoking in seventh grade students

An 8-month school-based smoking prevention program tested with 1526 seventh grade students resulted in a substantial reduction in the incidence of smoking relative to a comparison population. Two curriculum elements were found to have important deterrent effects on smoking onset: (1) emphasis on immediate and primarily social consequences of smoking and (2) personalization of the course materials and mode of presentation to include relevant peer role models and active individual role playing. Thiocyanate analysis of saliva samples taken from all participants corroborated the validity of self-report measures of smoking behavior.The research was supported in part by the Minnesota Heart Association, by the American Cancer Society, and by HEW, Public Health Service Grant 05D-000572.     

Cultural diversity in causal attributions for illness: The role of the supernatural

We investigated cultural diversity in beliefs about the causes of illness and assessed the possibility that popular free-form methodologies (asking subjects to generate causes) inhibit minorities from expressing their belief in supernatural causes. As predicted, when asked to generate causes of illness and rate these in terms of their importance, whites and minorities did not differ in the number or type (natural vs supernatural) of causes they generated or in the importance rating they assigned to these. However, when these same subjects were provided with natural and supernatural causes to rate in terms of importance, minorities rated supernatural causes significantly more important than did whites, and more minorities than whites endorsed such causes. Cultural differences in causal attributions for illness are examined, and the role of methodology in determining such attributions is highlighted.     

The impact of self-control indices on peer smoking and adolescent smoking progression

OBJECTIVE: To determine the direct impact of self-control variables on baseline smoking and smoking progression and determine whether self-control had indirect effects on smoking practices through effects on peer smoking. METHODS: Study participants were 918 adolescents who were followed from 9th through the 12th grade and completed self-report measures of peer smoking, self-control, and cigarette smoking. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to assess the factor structure of a 41-item self-control measure. The EFA indicated a six-factor structure comprising of impulsive control, planning, hostile blaming, attentional disregulation, conscientiousness, and physical aggression. RESULTS: The results of a latent growth model indicated that conscientiousness (OR = 0.81, CI = 0.73-0.90), hostile blaming (OR = 0.89, CI = 0.81-0.99), and physical aggression (OR = 1.16, CI = 1.06-1.27) had direct effects on baseline smoking, whereas planning (OR = 0.90, CI = 0.82-0.99) and impulse control (OR = 1.15, CI = 1.02-1.28) had indirect effects on adolescent smoking at baseline through baseline peer smoking. There were no significant direct or indirect effects of the self-control indices on smoking progression. There was a direct effect of peer smoking progression (number of peers who smoked) on adolescent smoking progression, such that increases in the number of peers who smoked across time increased the odds that an adolescent would progress to a higher level of smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Youth smoking prevention and intervention program outcomes may potentially improve by addressing self-control behaviors as they appear to have direct effects on smoking and indirect effects through peers who smoke.     

The effect of fear-arousing communications on cigarette smoking: An expectancy-value approach

This paper describes a model, derived from subjective expected utility ( SEU ) theory, which attempts to explain the effects of a fear-arousing communication about smoking and lung cancer on smokers' decisions to try to stop smoking. According to the model, the strength of the smoker's intention to try to stop smoking will depend on three factors: (1) the utility of lung cancer; (2) the perceived reduction in the risk of getting lung cancer that follows from successfully stopping smoking (probability difference); and (3) the subjective probability of successfully stopping smoking, or confidence. The usefulness of this model vis-á-vis one based on the amount of fear aroused by the communication was investigated in two experimental studies conducted in the field in which smokers watched either a videotape about smoking or one on a different health topic. The smoking videotape influenced not only attitudes and beliefs measured immediately after exposure but also subsequent self-reports of behavior (whether or not the subject tried to stop smoking or to cut down in the 3-month period following exposure to the videotape). In accordance with predictions, the three variables specified by the model together affected intention to try to stop smoking, which in turn affected behavior. The effect of confidence on intention was relatively large. There was no evidence for the multiplicative combination of utilities and subjective probabilities predicted by a strict SEU model. Contrary to the predictions of the model, but consistent with previous research, the amount of fear aroused by the videotape had an independent effect on intention, suggesting that explanations of the effects of fear-arousing communications will have to incorporate both cognitive and emotional mediation processes.     

Measurement of adolescent smoking behavior: Rationale and methods

The initiation of cigarette smoking among adolescents is a health problem which has been the subject of discussion and study for many years. The evaluation of strategies to deter the adoption of smoking has long been hampered by the problems of measuring adolescent smoking behavior. Recently, interest has increased in biochemical measures of smoking under the assumption that they are more objective measures. The validity of this assumption is addressed for several ages of adolescents. This paper presents saliva thiocyanate levels, expired air carbon monoxide levels, and smoking self-reports from a sample of 2200 junior and senior high-school students. Interrelationships among the biochemical and behavioral measures are strong among the total population, ranging from 0.48 to 0.95 (Pearson r) but are much weaker at the younger age levels. Normative levels of carbon monoxide and saliva thiocyanate are presented by age (11-13, 14-15, and 16-17 years old). These data indicate that habitual smoking appears to develop in a gradual fashion and that several years may pass between initial experimentation and adult levels of smoking. Younger students consistently display lower levels of thiocyanate and carbon monoxide than older students of the same self-reported levels of smoking, suggesting that inhalation patterns may vary as a function of age or years smoking.     

The effects of acute exercise on subsequent cigarette smoking

The present study was conducted to examine the effects of acute aerobic exercise on smoking behavior. On alternate days, 10 healthy young smokers were subjected to half an hour of sustained high exercise (about 56% of maximum work capacity) or of low exercise (about 28% of maximum, simulating normal daytime activity). During the high-exercise condition, there were pronounced increases in physiological markers of physical activity such as mean work, heart rate, and lactic acid as well as elevations in circulating hormones (norepinephrine, epinephrine, and immunoreactive beta-endorphin and cortisol) known to be affected by vigorous exercise. Despite a trend toward decreased desire for cigarettes after the high exercise condition, there were no differences in plasma nicotine levels following the smoking of a usual-brand cigarette 35 min later. The sustained effects of the two exercise conditions were also similar: plasma cotinine levels 24 hr later (reflecting nicotine intake over the entire exercise day) revealed no significant differences between hight and low exercise.The authors acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of Judith L. Cooney, Ned Cooney, Nancy Haley, Mark Majchrzak, Stephanie M. Nespor, and Edward Shaskan. Partial support for this research was provided by National Cancer Institute Grant CA/DA 42730, by the Arthur Thornton Fund, and by the New Britain General Hospital Auxiliary.     

Predictors of smoking initiation among schoolchildren in Tunisia: a 4 years cohort study

Objective

To identify predictors of smoking initiation among non smoking Tunisian school children; and to propose efficient antismoking strategies in order to prevent smoking initiation.

Methods

It was a cohort study surveying prospectively for four years pupils attending schools in Sousse city in Tunisia. 441 non smoking pupils aged 13–15 years attending secondary schools in Sousse.Data were collected by a self administered questionnaire during class session. Two ways cross tabulation, univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were the main analytical methods.

Results

57.1% of the surveyed population were girls, 42.9 % were boys. 63% had at least one of their peers who smoked. Before 1999, 16.6% had already tried to smoke, 29.5% had already experienced alcohol. In 2003, smoking prevalence was 17%. 4.8% were girls; 33.3% of boys; p<0,001). 69.9 % of these smokers declared that they would carry on smoking during the following five years. Predictors which were highly associated with smoking initiation were previous experimentation with alcohol and tobacco, having a smoking best friend, lack of sensitization from the part of the school, believing that smoking makes one feel cool and that tobacco shouldn''t be forbidden in public places.

Conclusion

Intervention programs should target young children to avoid experiencing the first cigarette. Multidisciplinary management including community and school based intervention highlighted by mass media campaigns may provide schoolchildren with skills to resist smoking peers prompts to adopt unhealthy habits such as smoking.     

Family socialization of adolescent's self-reported cigarette use: the role of parents' history of regular smoking and parenting style

OBJECTIVE: To examine the main and interactive effects of parental history of regular cigarette smoking and parenting style on adolescent self-reported cigarette use. METHODS: Predictors of adolescent self-reported cigarette use, including parents' history of regular cigarette smoking and two dimensions of parenting behavior, were analyzed in a sample of 934 predominately Caucasian (96.3%) parent-adolescent dyads. Families were drawn from the control group of a randomized control trial aimed at preventing adolescent substance use. RESULTS: In addition to the main effects of parents' history of regular smoking and parental warmth, logistic regression analysis revealed that the interaction of these two variables was associated with adolescent self-reported cigarette use. Parental warmth was associated with a decreased likelihood of the adolescent ever having smoked a cigarette; however, this was true only if neither parent had a history of regular cigarette smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that adolescent smoking prevention programs may be more efficacious if they address both parental history of regular smoking and parenting behavior.     

Effect of cigarette smoking on the humoral immune response in pigeon fanciers

Tobacco smoking is associated with increased prevalence of various diseases. In this study, we have used an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to investigate the specific IgG response to pigeon serum and its relationship to tobacco smoking. In a large group of pigeon fanciers the development of pigeon breeder's disease and some of the clinical features were also investigated. We found a sensitization rate of 31.9%, a lower degree than that found by other authors, in spite of using a less specific antigen. We also found that fanciers who are current cigarette smokers had significantly lower levels of IgG antibody to pigeon serum (P less than 0.001). Finally, 11.9% of the population had chronic bronchitis as their only manifestation of possible pigeon-related disease. 19.6% of the sensitized fanciers had chronic bronchitis, were non-smokers and had no other risk factor for developing chronic bronchitis.     

Asthma-specific predictors of smoking onset in adolescents with asthma: a longitudinal study

Objective Despite even occasional smoking being more riskyfor adolescents with asthma, the smoking rate in this vulnerablepopulation remains high. This is the first longitudinal studyinvestigating asthma-specific predictors of smoking initiation. Methods Athree-wave longitudinal survey study (22 months) among 257 adolescentswith asthma was conducted. The effects of asthma-specific factors[symptom severity, medication adherence, coping, attitude towardsasthma, and quality of life (QOL)] on smoking onset were testedwith logistic regression models. Results Poorer self-reportedadherence and the maladaptive coping strategy of hiding asthmapredicted smoking onset. Poorer QOL predicted smoking in boysonly. Conclusions Our findings underscore the importanceof recognizing and addressing adherence problems during adolescenceas low adherence is a risk factor for smoking initiation. Moreover,psychosocial factors, such as coping and QOL for boys, wereassociated with smoking initiation. This highlights the importanceof attending to the psychosocial needs of youth with asthma.     

The contribution of peers to monthly variation in adolescent depressed mood: a short-term longitudinal study with time-varying predictors

This study examined peer predictors of variation and growth in depressed mood among high-risk adolescents, using child and parent reports of monthly symptoms. One hundred seventy-six parents and their 10- to 14-year-old children separately took part in a series of up to nine monthly interviews. Multilevel growth models examined both time-varying peer predictors of parent and child reports of the child's depressive symptoms, controlling for age, gender, and treatment status. Deviant peer affiliation significantly predicted elevated depressive symptoms in the monthly child-report of depressed mood, especially for younger adolescents. Children's level of delinquency was significantly related to parent-reported depressive symptoms, and to child-reported symptoms in older adolescents only. As expected, depressed mood was higher for girls and more prevalent among older adolescents. The results suggest that peer processes may be linked in time to the development of depression, especially among high-risk adolescents.     

Beyond Cultural Competence: Human Diversity and the Appositeness of Asseverative Goals

I argue that, as a profession, psychology needs to aspire beyond the goal of achieving cultural competence when addressing issues of human diversity. Although laudable, cultural competency as a goal may not set the bar high enough to achieve equity regarding those minority groups traditionally neglected or marginalized. As such, I further argue that asseverative objectives—ones that ask us to aver, affirm, and embrace human diversity—would be more consistent with a truly egalitarian perspective and our own code of ethics. I then describe barriers to achieving such goals that exist as endemic aspects of clinical psychology's worldview of human behavior and psychopathology, as well as inherent characteristics of simply being human. Last, I suggest that in order to reach such asseverative goals, we need to be more active (as compared to simply reading relevant journal articles) in our daily activities when it comes to issues of human diversity.     

Modelling change in adolescent smoking behaviour: Stability of predictors across analytic models

Objectives The current paper examined the variability of predictors of changes in adolescent smoking across linear and nonlinear analytic models. Design Three analytic models typically used to model adolescent smoking behaviour were tested: one linear model of change (standard linear), one static linear model (pre‐post linear) and one nonlinear model of change (cusp catastrophe). Variability in model composition was assessed by examining the pattern of variables achieving statistical significance and proportion of variance explained. Methods Model testing was conducted on data from Australian adolescents successfully tracked through a 12‐month longitudinal study of smoking (N = 779). The survey measured demographics, self‐reported smoking, smoking among friends and family, self‐esteem, neuroticism, coping, stress and risk taking. Results The results indicated that while predictors of change were invariant across analytic models explanatory power varied markedly. Models of change in smoking that included simple, interacted or polynomial forms of initial conditions (past behaviour) explained more than four times the variance of models without. Conclusions These results justified confidence in the predictors of change in adolescent smoking across analytic models. A secondary implication was that more research into past behaviour's role in the context of dynamical models of adolescent smoking and other health behaviour is needed.     

Resilience among African American adolescent mothers: predictors of positive parenting in early infancy

OBJECTIVE: To use Nath et al.'s (1991) conceptual model of adolescent parenting to examine the relationship between resiliency factors measured shortly after delivery and maternal parenting behavior at 6 months. METHOD: We recruited 181 first-time, adolescent African American mothers at delivery. Data on resiliency factors (maturity, self-esteem, and mother-grandmother relationships) were collected when infants were 1-4 weeks of age. Data on parental nurturance and parenting satisfaction were examined through observations and self-report at 6 months. RESULTS: Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the longitudinal impact of resiliency factors on parental nurturance and parenting satisfaction. Maternal maturity, positive self-esteem, and positive adolescent mother-grandmother relationships (characterized by autonomy and mutuality) were associated with better parenting outcomes. Maternal parenting satisfaction was lowest when infants were temperamentally difficult and mothers and grandmothers had a confrontational relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Longitudinal associations between mother-grandmother relationships at delivery and parental behavior and satisfaction 6 months later may suggest an intergenerational transmission of parenting style. Recommendations are provided for intervention programs to enhance mother-grandmother relationships in contexts where adolescents are required to live with a guardian to receive government assistance.     

Assessment of genotoxicity of waterpipe and cigarette smoking in lymphocytes using the sister‐chromatid exchange assay: A comparative study

Tobacco smoking is a major world health problem. Recently, waterpipe smoking has become more popular in many countries. Although the genotoxicity associated with cigarette smoking has been extensively investigated, studies evaluating such toxicity in waterpipe users are still lacking. In this study, we examined the genotoxicity of waterpipe smoking in lymphocytes compared with the genotoxicity of cigarette smoking. Genotoxicity was evaluated using the sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs) assay. Fifty waterpipe smokers and 18 healthy nonsmokers participated in this study. Additionally, 18 heavy cigarette smokers (CS) were recruited for comparison. The results show that waterpipe smoking and cigarette smoking significantly increase the frequencies of SCEs (P < 0.01) compared with those of nonsmokers, indicating the genotoxic effect of tobacco smoking. In addition, frequencies of SCEs were significantly higher among waterpipe smokers compared with CS (P < 0.01), indicating that waterpipe smoking is more genotoxic than cigarette smoking. Moreover, the frequency of SCEs increased with the extent of waterpipe use. In conclusion, waterpipe smoking is genotoxic to lymphocytes and the magnitude of its genotoxicity is higher than that induced by regular cigarette smoking. Environ. Mol. Mutagen., 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Endocrinology: The impact of cigarette smoking on the plasma concentrations of gonadotrophins, ovarian steroids and androgens and upon the metabolism of oestrogens in the human female

This study compares the plasma gonadotrophin, oestradiol, andandrogen and salivary progesterone concentrations in a singlemenstrual cycle between 25 normal pre-menopausal women who smokecigarettes and 21 who are non-smokers. The effect of smokingon luteinizing hormone (LH) pulsatility and the urinary excretionof oestrogens is also described. Cigarette smoking did not consistentlysuppress LH pulsatility. There was no significant differencein the length of either the follicular or luteal phases. Therewere no significant differences in the mean plasma oestradiolconcentrations in the follicular phase in smokers compared tonon-smokers. There were no significant differences in the meansalivary progesterone concentration in the luteal phase in smokerscompared to non-smokers. There was no significant differencein plasma concentrations of testosterone, androstenedione anddehydroepiandrosterone sulphate. There was also no significantdifference between the urinary concentrations of oestradiol,oestrone or oestriol. We have been unable to demonstrate a detrimentaleffect of cigarette smoking on any of the important endocrinecharacteristics of the menstrual cycle, and we conclude thatthese data suggest that the anti-oestrogenic effect of smokingdoes not work through alterations in pituitary or follicularendocrine function or in alterations in the metabolism of oestrogens.     

The favorite cigarette of the day

The choice of a favorite cigarette smoked during a given day varies considerably. Preferences are related to nicotine dependence and the lifestyles of smokers. In a sample of 5124 smokers, the after-dinner cigarette was chosen as the cigarette which they would miss most, while the next largest proportion of smokers (33%) said that they would miss the first cigarette of the morning most. The latter group scored highest on tests of nicotine dependence. In contrast, infrequent smokers (chippers) chose the after-dinner cigarette.Supported in part by NHLBI Grant HL39770 and California Tobacco-Related Disease Program Grant 1RT-87.