Predicting the retirement intentions and attitudes of professional workers

The purpose of this study was to examine the intentions about and attitudes toward retirement of professional workers, one of the more neglected groups in the retirement literature. Four types of professionals were represented: attorneys, social workers, high school teachers, and college professors. Intentions were defined in terms of projections regarding when respondents planned to retire, consideration of early retirement, and thinking about life after retirement. Attitudes were measured by using a set of three previously developed attitude scales. Six kinds of independent variables were controlled: (a) certain social factors (gender, age, and profession), (b) alienation from work and everyday life, (c) work history, (d) life-long habits of using free time constructively, (e) extensiveness of financial preparation, and plans for second careers and new involvements were the most consistent predictors of both intentions and attitudes. Alienation and certain types of financial preparation were by far the major variables.     

Proximity to retirement and anticipatory involvement: findings from the Normative Aging Study

This study investigated the level of workers' informal retirement-oriented behavior in the years preceding retirement. Two research questions were addressed: (a) What is the relationship between retirement proximity and preretirement involvement behaviors, and (b) How might retirement involvement levels be further affected by attitude toward retirement, job characteristics, and personal resources? Data were collected from 816 male workers participating in a long-term panel study of aging who anticipated retiring within the next 15 years. Results indicated that preretirement involvement increased with retirement proximity and that the association held even among men who dreaded retirement or were satisfied with their jobs. These findings suggest that a process of anticipating retirement is underway well in advance of withdrawal from work and that a gathering involvement in retirement is normative as the event approaches.     

Changing work: Mid-to-late life transitions in employment

Job transition is an important, though largely unexplored aspect of work. The Centre for Research into the Older Workforce (CROW) conducted a survey of 5,200 people asking about their recent job transition. The experience of job transition in mid-to-late working life is discussed as a precursor to retirement and working beyond normal retirement ages. Three types of older worker were identified in this survey and dubbed: ‘choosers’, ‘survivors’ and ‘jugglers’. Each of these has different reason for making a job change and consequently different reasons for considering working after retirement. Flexible working is an attractive and popular option for ‘bridge’ jobs and for phasing into retirement but current British government policy is focused on equality and diversity and anti-age discrimination in employment practices. Little is being done to encourage more diverse forms of employment opportunities for older workers who either need or want to downshift before leaving work completely. Her research interests are older workers, gender and age discrimination, labor market policy and work organization. His research interests are older workers, job design, Human Resources practices, age discrimination, labor market trends, industrial relations and public policy.     

The transition to retirement: stages and factors that influence retirement adjustment

A set of older workers from the Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, North Carolina metropolitan area were followed from pre-retirement to 24 months post-retirement in order to explore stages in retirement and the impact of social psychological, social background, and gender factors on the retirement adjustment. First, we found general support for Atchley's model of retirement adjustment (1976). Second, the factors that influence retirement adjustment in the data analysis revealed that: 1) pre-retirement self-esteem and friend identity meanings, as well as pension eligibility, increased positive attitudes toward retirement at six months, 12 months, and 24 months post-retirement; 2) retirement planning and voluntary retirement increased positive attitudes toward retirement earlier, but not later, in the first two years of retirement; 3) poor health decreased positive attitudes toward retirement later rather than earlier in the first two years of retirement; and 4) there were only limited gender effects.     

Determinants of a positive attitude toward retirement.

This research investigates the possibility that attitude toward retirement is better understood as resulting from the worker's realistic appraisal of the type of retirement experience which he can expect than as part of a general value orientation stressing the worker role. Questionnaire data collected from 70 older industrial workers indicate that workers who can expect a positive retirement experience in terms of finances, friends, social activity, and level of preparedness are likely to have a positive attitude toward retirement. No relationship was found between commitment to work and attitude toward retirement.     

Adjustment to retirement: effects of resource change on physical and psychological well-being

A 1-year longitudinal study was conducted to examine the effects of retirement resources on the physical and psychological well-being of Hong Kong Chinese retirees during the transition to retirement. This study consisted of two assessments: Time 1 was conducted 6 months before retirement, while Time 2 was implemented 6 months after retirement. Personal resources and physical and psychological well-being were measured in the two assessments. The final sample contained 128 retirees who completed both assessments. Compared with Time 1, the retirees reported fewer financial resources at Time 2. Change in cognitive resources was significantly predictive of the changes in physical functioning, life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and psychological distress during the transition period. The findings of this longitudinal study reveal that in addition to financial, physical, and social resources that have often been emphasized in the past literature, mental resources also play an important role in positive adjustment to retirement. Future retirement planning programs are recommended to include modules for strengthening cognitive, emotional, and motivational resources of retired persons.     

Retirement transitions, gender, and psychological well-being: a life-course, ecological model

This longitudinal study investigated the relationship between retirement transitions and subsequent psychological well-being using data on 458 married men and women (aged 50-72 years) who were either still in their primary career jobs, retired, or had just made the transition to retirement over the preceding 2 years. The findings show that the relationship between retirement and psychological well-being must be viewed in a temporal, life course context. Specifically, making the transition to retirement within the last 2 years is associated with higher levels of morale for men, whereas being "continuously" retired is related to greater depressive symptoms among men. The results suggest the importance of examining various resources and contexts surrounding retirement transitions (gender, prior level of psychological well-being, spouses' circumstance, and changes in personal control, marital quality, subjective health, and income adequacy) to understand the dynamics of the retirement transition and its relationship with psychological well-being.     

Couples' adjustment to retirement: a multi-actor panel study

OBJECTIVE: This study examines adjustment to retirement by couples. For both older workers and their partners, we investigate the extent to which adjustment is influenced by the context in which the transition is made and psychological factors shaped by individual expectations and evaluations prior to retirement. Moreover, we examine the extent to which partners influence each other in the process of adjusting to retirement. METHODS: With use of multi-actor panel data from 559 older Dutch couples who experienced the transition into retirement of one of the partners, ordinary least squares, and three-stage least squares regression models are used to explain adjustment to retirement by both partners. RESULT: Adjustment to retirement is influenced by the context in which the transition is made as well as individual psychological factors. A strong "quantitative" attachment to work (full-time jobs, long work histories), a lack of control over the transition, retirement anxiety (negative preretirement expectations), and low scores on self-efficacy are predictors of difficult adjustment. The extent to which partners influence each other in the process of adjusting to retirement appears to be limited. DISCUSSION: Retirement affects both partners, albeit in a different way. Retirement preparation programs should pay attention to the fact that adjustment is an individualized process experienced differently by each partner.     

The association between supportive social ties and autonomic nervous system function—differences between family ties and friendship ties in a cohort of older adults

Supportive family and friendship ties can serve different functions and thus might show different associations with an individual’s health. Particularly, older adults might show varying health benefits of different types of supportive ties depending on their marital and retirement status. Our aim is to analyze relationships between different types of supportive social ties and autonomic nervous system (ANS) function, a physiological indicator of health that can help to establish the biological plausibility of the association—measured by heart rate variability (HRV). We present cross-sectional linear regression analyses of a German cohort of community-dwelling older adults (2008–2010; n = 1,548; mean age = 68.7 years). Our findings indicate that supportive friendship ties show significant positive associations (i.e., higher HRV) in individuals that are either not married or above retirement age. Supportive family ties show significant positive associations in individuals below retirement age. Significant results vanish or are reduced after accounting for behavioral/physical and psychological/cognitive indicators. We conclude that programs supporting the development or maintenance of friendship ties might be especially beneficial in unmarried older adults and adults above retirement age.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10433-021-00638-2.     

Stressors and rewards for workers in AIDS service organizations

The primary objective of this study was to examine the impact of recent advances in the treatment of HIV/AIDS on AIDS service providers. The study surveyed the motivations, stressors, and rewards of workers employed in AIDS service organizations. Employees of AIDS service organizations play a valuable role in providing services to people with HIV/AIDS, and their motives and attitudes about their jobs are significantly related to the quality of care provided to clients. A total of 180 employees from nine AIDS service organizations in New York City completed a self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of demographic, motivation, stressor, and reward items. This ethnically diverse sample consisted of social service workers (56%), administrative workers (22%), health care workers (18%), and other workers (4%). Forty-two percent of respondents had been working in the AIDS field for 5 or more years. The main reasons for choosing this line of work were a desire to help others, followed by having experienced the loss of a loved one to AIDS. Overall, respondents rated the level of stressors in their jobs as moderate. The main category of stress was "lack of support" (referring to the availability of resources and support for clients). The most important individual stressors were societal attitudes towards AIDS, salary, client deaths, and administrative duties. The most highly valued reward factor associated with AIDS caregiving was "personal effectiveness." Overall, the rewards of AIDS caregiving outweighed the stressors, for respondents. Implications of these findings for administrators of AIDS service organizations are discussed.     

An Education Program in Alcoholism for Social Workers: Its Impact on Attitudes and Treatment-Oriented Behavior

The Marcus questionnaire, consisting of 40 statements, was administered to social workers who participated in a training program. Of the 100 copies distributed, 53 were returned by 42 social workers who presented three types of attendance patterns. The two groups that completed only one questionnaire, either before or after the program, had significantly more negative attitudes. The group that completed both questionnaires (Group B) had uniformly more positive attitudes than either of the other two groups. One factor (concerning the socioeconomic status of alcoholics) shifted in a negative direction in Group B. This change is not believed to be maladaptive. The positive attitudes expressed by Group B might be evidence of intellectual sophistication instead of absence of moralistic sentiment (Pittman and Sterne 1965). Their attitudes may also have been affected by the awareness that they were being researched (Cisin and Cahalan 1970). The four objectives of the training program were substantially accomplished by Group B. Our results prompted changes in the social service department. The education program prompted a referral arrangement that would ease the flow of patients from hospital wards to the alcoholism clinic of Boston City Hospital. Three trainees were instructed in the counseling of alcoholics in an outpatient setting. A new program was developed following the guidelines set up by the education program; 17 counsellors of alcoholics worked on the wards of Boston City Hospital under the supervision of 13 social workers. Greater involvement was also made in direct care. Four social workers are being supervised in casework with alcoholics by a staff member of the alcoholism division of Boston City Hospital. One of the social workers who attended the course joined the alcoholism division staff as a group leader. We are left with one big, unresolved question: How do we involve those who are most ambivalent or have negative attitudes in training programs? It appears that the most consistent participants are those with more positive attitudes to begin with. Another important consideration is the role of graduate schools in preparing students studying social work for casework with alcoholics.     

Women at risk: predictors of financial stress for retired women workers.

Research on women workers tends to neglect older workers, and much of the literature on retirement has focused on male experiences. This analysis uses data from the 1982 New Beneficiary Survey to examine financial stress in retirement for a sample of highly committed women workers. Separate regressions are done for married and unmarried women, and particular attention is paid to the impact of gender-segregated jobs. Results suggest the relative importance of work history and sociodemographic variables as predictors of financial stress in early retirement.     

Race, gender, and the retirement decisions of people ages 60 to 80: prospects for age integration in employment

Demographic projections have prompted concerns about the potential economic burden of an aging population. This article, drawing on the 1998 Health and Retirement Study, explores ways in which race, gender, and age moderate the effects of various factors on labor force participation among people ages 60 to 80. Key findings center on health, education, and non-wage income. First, the effect of low non-wage income is weaker at older ages due to higher levels of functional disability. Second, the effect of low education is stronger for women, who perceive their chances of finding employment as low. Third, the effect of health is weaker for blacks, as they are less likely to find steady employment regardless of health. Policy implications: Employer flexibility in number of hours worked might make sense for workers close to retirement age, while job search and training programs might be preferable for workers past the typical retirement age.     

Goal clarity and financial planning activities as determinants of retirement savings contributions

Retirement counselors, financial service professionals, and retirement intervention specialists routinely emphasize the importance of developing clear goals for the future; however, few empirical studies have focused on the benefits of retirement goal setting. In the present study, the extent to which goal clarity and financial planning activities predict retirement savings practices was examined among 100 working adults. Path analysis techniques were used to test two competing models, both of which were designed to predict savings contributions. Findings provide support for the model in which retirement goal clarity is a significant predictor of planning practices, and planning, in turn, predicts savings tendencies. Two demographic variables-income and age-were also revealed to be important elements of the model, with income accounting for roughly half of the explained variance in savings contributions. The results of this study have implications for the development of age-based models of planning, as well as implications for retirement counselors and financial planners who advise workers on long-term saving strategies.     

Eddies in the stream: the prevalence of uncertain plans for retirement

OBJECTIVE: This study examined an assumption of retirement theory that typifies older workers as preretirees who are planfully engaged in paths toward retirement. METHODS: Using survey responses among workers in the 1992 and 1994 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, we described the prevalence of nonsubstantive answers to questions about the expected form and timing of retirement (e.g., "don't know," "haven't thought about it"). We tested explanations for this uncertainty as an artifact of the survey process, but also as an outcome of the opportunity structure for retirement planning. RESULTS: Survey procedure did generate some of these noncommittal responses. Depending on question type, approximately 10% to 40% of workers did not state when or how they would retire, and such responses were less prevalent across age and time. In addition, categorical uncertainty about form and timing was theoretically predictable in a framework that supposed that workers less subject to a socially attended life--at work or away--would be more undecided about the future. DISCUSSION: Uncertainty is an authentic, meaningful stance toward retirement that theory and research design should not ignore. Just as actual transitions to retirement can be ambiguous or blurred, the expectation of retirement, as well, can be untidy.     

Pre-retirement life-style and the degree of planning for retirement.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the pre-retirement life-style of adult men, and both the degree of planning for the retirement years and the decision to retire early. Adult males (N = 360) between 55 and 64 years of age were interviewed about their present leisure life-style and the amount of retirement planning they were doing or had done. In order to determine which demographic, attitudinal and social participation variables predict retirement related behavior, Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) was used. It was found that socioeconomic status, health, involvement in expressive type organizations, job satisfaction and degree of leisure orientation were associated with pre-retirement attitudes toward retirement.     

Involuntary retirement: the role of restrictive circumstances, timing, and social embeddedness

OBJECTIVES: This study examined perceptions of involuntary retirement. We investigated the extent to which differences in how retirement is perceived stem from differences in (a) restrictive circumstances, (b) the older worker's preferences for retirement, (c) timing, and (d) social embeddedness. METHODS: Using multiactor panel data from 778 Dutch older workers who experienced the transition into retirement, we estimated an ordered logistic model to explain perceptions of involuntary retirement. RESULTS: This study showed that the way in which a person experiences retirement from the labor force is not influenced solely by factors that diminish the older worker's amount of choice (health and organizational constraints) but also relates to the older worker's social environment (social timing and social network influences). DISCUSSION: The way he or she frames the retirement transition in social relationships within the family and at work affects the older worker's subjective experience of retirement.     

Health shocks and retirement: the role of welfare state institutions

We investigate the effect of an acute health shock on retirement among elderly male workers in Denmark, 1991–1999, and in particular whether various welfare state programs and institutions impinge on the retirement effect. The results show that an acute health event increases the retirement chances of elderly male workers by 8%, and that this increase in the baseline retirement probability is not affected by eligibility to early exit programs and persists even after accounting for selection due to take-up of disability pension. Neither is it affected by the relatively long duration of sickness benefits in Denmark nor by the promotion of corporate social responsibility initiatives since the mid-1990s. In the late 1990s, however, the retirement rate following a health shock is reduced to 3% with the introduction of the subsidized employment program (fleksjob) but this effect is on the margin of being significant. For the most part, the retirement effect following a health shock seems to be immune to the availability of a multitude of government programs for older workers in Denmark.

Retirement intentions among black professionals: implications for practice with older black adults.

This study examined the preretirement intentions of black professionals. The sample consisted of 234 blacks and was stratified by gender, age, and professional status. Based on a model developed for predicting the retirement intentions and attitudes of a sample of white professionals, six categories of independent variables (sociocultural, work history, alienation, leisure and social activities, financial planning, and plans for retirement life) were included in the analysis. Professionals who were highly committed to their work, had few financial investments, and socialized primarily with co-workers tended to avoid planning for retirement. These results have important implications for practitioners concerned with more effectively meeting the preretirement and retirement needs of older black adults.