Peer Victimization Trajectories at the Adolescent Transition: Associations Among Chronic Victimization,Peer-Reported Status,and Adjustment

The current study demonstrated that chronic peer victimization, as compared to time-limited victimization, is particularly associated with peer status and peer-reported adjustment at the adolescent transition. Using a cohort sequential design, a sample of 653 adolescents (48% female, 87% Caucasian) in Grades 6–8 were assessed at 3 annual time points; data captured indices of peer victimization, likeability, popularity, and several peer-reported indices of internalizing (e.g., sadness, worry) and externalizing (e.g., anger, fighting) symptoms across Grades 6–10. Four trajectories of victimization experiences were identified—chronic, high decreasing, low increasing, and low stable—suggesting instability in victimization experiences over time. Adolescents who experienced chronic victimization, as compared to those with low-stable, decreasing, or increasing levels of victimization, were rated by peers more often on indices of maladjustment and less often on measures of popularity and likeability. Findings highlight negative associations with chronic victimization and underscore the need for targeted interventions to prevent chronic victimization. Overall, findings further emphasize the role of chronicity in victimization and highlight the importance of identifying chronic victims for intervention and prevention efforts.     

Social competence, externalizing, and internalizing behavioral adjustment from early childhood through early adolescence: developmental cascades

This study used a three-wave longitudinal design to investigate developmental cascades among social competence and externalizing and internalizing behavioral adjustment in a normative sample of 117 children seen at 4, 10, and 14 years. Children, mothers, and teachers provided data. A series of nested path analysis models was used to determine the most parsimonious and plausible cascades across the three constructs over and above their covariation at each age and stability across age. Children with lower social competence at age 4 years exhibited more externalizing and internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more externalizing behaviors at age 14 years. Children with lower social competence at age 4 years also exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more internalizing behaviors at age 14 years. Children who exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 4 years exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more externalizing behaviors at age 14 years. These cascades among social competence and behavioral adjustment obtained independent of child intelligence and maternal education and social desirability of responding.     

Peer victimization, psychosocial adjustment, and physical activity in overweight and at-risk-for-overweight youth

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between peer victimization and child and parent reports of psychosocial adjustment and physical activity in a clinical sample of at-risk-for-overweight and overweight children and adolescents. METHODS: The Schwartz Peer Victimization Scale, Children's Depression Inventory-Short Form, Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children, Social Physique Anxiety Scale, PACE+ Adolescent Physical Activity Measure, and Asher Loneliness Scale were administered to 92 children and adolescents (54 females) aged 8-18 years. The youth's parent/guardian completed the Child Behavior Checklist. RESULTS: Peer victimization was positively related to child-reported depression, anxiety, social physique anxiety, and loneliness, and parent-reported internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Peer victimization was negatively related to physical activity. Depressive symptoms and loneliness mediated the relations between peer victimization and physical activity. CONCLUSION: Recognition of the magnitude of the problem and the means of evaluating for peer victimization is important for clinicians who work with overweight youth. Assessing peer experiences may assist in understanding rates of physical activity and/or past nonadherence to clinician recommendations.     

The roles of behavioral adjustment and conceptions of peers and emotions in preschool children's peer victimization

Ninety-four low- and middle-income preschoolers (48 boys, 46 girls) were recruited from two sites in a large southwestern city. Children's positive attributions of peer intent, social problem-solving decisions, and attributions of peers' feelings about the provocation were evaluated from individual interviews. In addition, children's anger perception accuracy and their global emotion situation knowledge were assessed. Teachers and their assistants reported on the children's social competence, internalizing and externalizing behavior, and the degree to which children were physically and relationally victimized. Social competence was a negative predictor of relational and physical victimization, and externalizing behavior was a positive predictor of both types of victimization. Anger perception accuracy was negatively related to physical victimization, and global emotion situation knowledge and attributions of sorrow to provoking peers were positive predictors. Results support a conceptual framework that emphasizes the importance of social and emotion-related social cognitive variables for understanding young children's peer-related victimization.     

Overt and relational victimization among children with frequent abdominal pain: links to social skills, academic functioning, and health service use

OBJECTIVES: Chronic abdominal pain is linked with school absenteeism and diminished social competence; yet, little is know about the extent to which negative peer encounters contribute to symptoms and functioning in youth with abdominal pain. This study compared children with frequent abdominal pain with a pain-free control group on measures of overt and relational victimization and examined the link between abdominal pain and school-related functioning. METHODS: Participants were 60 children with frequent abdominal pain and 60 gender- and age-matched peers. Child, peer, and teacher reports were used to assess abdominal pain, peer victimization, use of school medical services, social skills, and academic competence. RESULTS: Children with frequent abdominal pain experienced higher levels of victimization than their pain-free peers, with boys in the pain group rated highest in overt victimization. For children in the pain group, overt and relational victimization made incremental contributions to outcomes and moderated the link between pain- and school-related functioning. CONCLUSIONS: Overt and relational victimization may increase risk of concurrent adjustment problems among youth with frequent abdominal pain; thus, it may be useful to assess peer relationships when working with this population.     

Does escaping victimization in elementary school lead to improved health in high school: a comparison of victimization profile groups

This study examined whether children follow unique victimization trajectories during elementary school and whether these paths predict differential psychological and physical health outcomes during high school. Participants included 1,073 children from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Peer victimization was assessed in the 3rd, 5th, 6th, and 9th grades, and psychological and physical health outcomes (e.g., depression, loneliness, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, physical health markers, and health habits) were measured in the 9th grade. Growth mixture modeling revealed three groups: non‐victims (n  =  886), persistent victims (n  =  52), and escaped victims (n  =  70). Generally, persistent victims experienced poorer physical functioning and health, higher levels of psychological maladjustments, and poorer health habits (i.e., sleep problems, disordered eating) compared to non‐victims. Using case–control matching, escaped victims and non‐victims did not differ on health behaviors and most physical health measures, with the exception of adiposity. Escaped victims experienced higher levels of psychological issues than non‐victims comparable to those observed in persistent victims. These findings underscore the heterogeneity of both victimization experiences and health outcomes following aversive peer experiences.     

Testing a developmental cascade model of emotional and social competence and early peer acceptance

A developmental cascade model of early emotional and social competence predicting later peer acceptance was examined in a community sample of 440 children across the ages of 2 to 7. Children's externalizing behavior, emotion regulation, social skills within the classroom and peer acceptance were examined utilizing a multitrait-multimethod approach. A series of longitudinal cross-lag models that controlled for shared rater variance were fit using structural equation modeling. Results indicated there was considerable stability in children's externalizing behavior problems and classroom social skills over time. Contrary to expectations, there were no reciprocal influences between externalizing behavior problems and emotion regulation, although higher levels of emotion regulation were associated with decreases in subsequent levels of externalizing behaviors. Finally, children's early social skills also predicted later peer acceptance. Results underscore the complex associations among emotional and social functioning across early childhood.     

From child maltreatment to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: a developmental cascade model

A developmental cascade model tested associations among child maltreatment, internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, social competence, and cannabis abuse and dependence symptoms in a longitudinal cohort (N = 415). Nested structural equation models evaluated continuity and cross-domain influences among broad multi-informant constructs across four developmental periods: age 7 to 9, 10 to 12, 13 to 15, and 15 to 18. Results indicated significant paths from child maltreatment to early externalizing and internalizing problems and social competence, as well as to cannabis abuse and dependence (CAD) symptoms in adolescence. Youth CAD symptoms were primarily related directly to child maltreatment and externalizing problems. Childhood internalizing symptoms contributed to later childhood decreases in social competence, which predicted increases in late adolescent externalizing problems. Using a developmental psychopathology framework, results are discussed in relation to cascade and transactional effects and the interplay between problem behaviors during childhood and development of CAD symptoms during early and late adolescence.     

Multicomponent programs for reducing peer victimization in early elementary school: a longitudinal evaluation of the WITS Primary Program

Past research demonstrates the promise of multicomponent programs in reducing peer victimization and bullying in older elementary and middle school children, however little research focuses on young children. The current study examines the effectiveness of the WITS Primary program on trajectories of victimization and social responsibility in children in Grades 1 to 3 (n=830). A quasi‐experimental design is used to compare schools with well‐established programs to nonprogram control schools, using three waves of data collected over 18 months. Children in the WITS program (n=422) showed more rapid declines in peer victimization over time compared with children in control schools (n=418). In addition, teachers of children in program schools reported higher average levels of social responsibility at each time point, compared with control schools. This study adds to support for the multicomponent program in reducing peer victimization among young children. Teachers' important roles in monitoring program implementation are discussed. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Bias in Self-Perceptions and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems in Adjustment During Early Adolescence: A Prospective Investigation

We investigated bias in self-perceptions of competence (relative to parent ratings) for family, school, and peer domains as predictors of adjustment problems among 139 young adolescents over a 1-year period using a prospective design. Regressions examined measures of bias at Time 1 (T1) as predictors of ratings of internalizing and externalizing problems at Time 2 (T2), controlling for T1 adjustment ratings. For the family domain, curvilinear trends were found. Follow-up analyses revealed that for this domain both negative bias (self-perceptions less favorable than parent ratings) and positive bias (self-perceptions more favorable than parent ratings) predicted greater internalizing and externalizing problems as rated by youth, parents, and teachers. For the peer domain, higher scores on the measure of bias predicted greater internalizing and externalizing problems as rated by teachers. These findings are consistent with the view that accuracy in self-perceptions of competence can have important implications across multiple domains of development.     

Bias in self-perceptions and internalizing and externalizing problems in adjustment during early adolescence: a prospective investigation.

We investigated bias in self-perceptions of competence (relative to parent ratings) for family, school, and peer domains as predictors of adjustment problems among 139 young adolescents over a 1-year period using a prospective design. Regressions examined measures of bias at Time 1 (T1) as predictors of ratings of internalizing and externalizing problems at Time 2 (T2), controlling for T1 adjustment ratings. For the family domain, curvilinear trends were found. Follow-up analyses revealed that for this domain both negative bias (self-perceptions less favorable than parent ratings) and positive bias (self-perceptions more favorable than parent ratings) predicted greater internalizing and externalizing problems as rated by youth, parents, and teachers. For the peer domain, higher scores on the measure of bias predicted greater internalizing and externalizing problems as rated by teachers. These findings are consistent with the view that accuracy in self-perceptions of competence can have important implications across multiple domains of development.     

Developmental trajectories of externalizing and internalizing behaviors: factors underlying resilience in physically abused children

Using a multisite community sample of 585 children, this study examined how protective and vulnerability factors alter trajectories of teacher-reported externalizing and internalizing behavior from kindergarten through Grade 8 for children who were and were not physically abused during the first 5 years of life. Early lifetime history of physical abuse (11.8% of sample) was determined through interviews with mothers during the prekindergarten period; mothers and children provided data on vulnerability and protective factors. Regardless of whether the child was abused, being African American; being male; having low early social competence, low early socioeconomic status (SES), and low adolescent SES; and experiencing adolescent harsh discipline, low monitoring, and low parental knowledge were related to higher levels of externalizing problems over time. Having low early social competence, low early SES, low adolescent SES, and low proactive parenting were related to higher levels of internalizing problems over time. Furthermore, resilience effects, defined as significant interaction effects, were found for unilateral parental decision making (lower levels are protective of externalizing outcomes for abused children), early stress (lower levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children), adolescent stress (lower levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children), and hostile attributions (higher levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children). The findings provide a great deal of support for an additive or main effect perspective on vulnerability and protective factors and some support for an interactive perspective. It appears that some protective and vulnerability factors do not have stronger effects for physically abused children, but instead are equally beneficial or harmful to children regardless of their abuse status.     

Changing contexts? The effects of a primary prevention program on classroom levels of peer relational and physical victimization

Whereas school‐based prevention programs often target deficits in individual children's social skills in order to limit their aggression or exposure to peer victimization, there is increasing evidence that school‐wide and classroom‐level factors can also affect the success of these programs. This short‐term longitudinal study involved 432 elementary school students from 44 classrooms in 17 urban schools. We investigated whether classroom characteristics (average levels of social competence, emotional problems, and behavioral problems) and school‐wide characteristics (proportion of children on income assistance and implementation of a peer victimization prevention program—the Walk away, Ignore, Talk, and Seek help [W.I.T.S.] program) experienced in Grade 1 influences changes in children's reports of relational and physical victimization at the end of Grade 2. Findings showed that classroom levels of emotional problems predicted increases in relational victimization (beyond individual differences in emotional and behavioral problems). Classroom levels of behavioral problems predicted reports of increases in physical victimization (beyond individual differences). Classroom levels of social competence also interacted with individual levels of emotional problems such that children with higher levels of emotional problems in classes with more socially competent children reported more relational and physical victimization. Higher school levels of poverty and lack of program involvement also predicted higher levels of physical victimization, beyond individual and classroom effects. The capacity of the W.I.T.S. program to influence classroom level characteristics and the moderating effects of school poverty on victimization were also assessed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Comm Psychol 31: 397–418, 2003.     

The expression and regulation of negative emotions: risk factors for young children's peer victimization

Using a short-term longitudinal design, internalizing and externalizing emotions were examined as risk factors for being victimized by peers in early childhood. Regulation, aggression, and withdrawal were also tested as mediators. We found that anger, mediated by aggression and regulation, positively predicted being victimized, although the way in which anger related to victimization risk varied for boys and girls and across time. These findings were robust, particularly for girls, attesting to the importance of externalizing variables as risk factors for young children's victimization. Support for internalizing variables as risk factors for being victimized was weak. The implications of the findings for developmental models connecting symptomatology and victimization are discussed.     

Low Vagal Tone Magnifies the Association Between Psychosocial Stress Exposure and Internalizing Psychopathology in Adolescents

Vagal tone is a measure of cardiovascular function that facilitates adaptive responses to environmental challenge. Low vagal tone is associated with poor emotional and attentional regulation in children and has been conceptualized as a marker of sensitivity to stress. We investigated whether the associations of a wide range of psychosocial stressors with internalizing and externalizing psychopathology were magnified in adolescents with low vagal tone. Resting heart period data were collected from a diverse community sample of adolescents (ages 13–17; N = 168). Adolescents completed measures assessing internalizing and externalizing psychopathology and exposure to stressors occurring in family, peer, and community contexts. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was calculated from the interbeat interval time series. We estimated interactions between RSA and stress exposure in predicting internalizing and externalizing symptoms and evaluated whether interactions differed by gender. Exposure to psychosocial stressors was associated strongly with psychopathology. RSA was unrelated to internalizing or externalizing problems. Significant interactions were observed between RSA and child abuse, community violence, peer victimization, and traumatic events in predicting internalizing but not externalizing symptoms. Stressors were positively associated with internalizing symptoms in adolescents with low RSA but not in those with high RSA. Similar patterns were observed for anxiety and depression. These interactions were more consistently observed for male than female individuals. Low vagal tone is associated with internalizing psychopathology in adolescents exposed to high levels of stressors. Measurement of vagal tone in clinical settings might provide useful information about sensitivity to stress in child and adolescent clients.     

Children's experience of life stress: The role of family social support and social problem-solving skills as protective factors

Examined the role of family social support and social problem-solving skills in moderating the effects of children's stressful life events on behavioral adjustment. Participants were 322 fourth and fifth graders who reported on their stressful experiences during the past year. Children from both regular education (RE) or special education (SE) classrooms were included in the sample. Additional self-report data from children also included measures related to perceived level of family social support, a personality questionnaire, and a social problem-solving measure. In addition, teachers provided reports of the children's behavior and adjustment. Main effects were found for total stress, school/peer stress, family social support, and social problem solving. Significant moderator effects were found for family support on total stress for the teacher-reported internalizing problems of RE students and for family support on school/peer stress on the teacher-reported externalizing problems and self-reported anxiety problems of SE students. Specific, theory-generated hypotheses are discussed as a more effective method of examining relations between stress and various moderator variables.     

Child and context characteristics in trajectories of physical and relational victimization among early elementary school children

Transactional models suggest that peer victimization results from both individual and context differences, and understanding these differences may point to important targets for prevention and interventions that reduce victimization. Multilevel modeling was used to examine within-person (aggression and emotional dysregulation), between-person (sex and age), and between-school (participation in a victimization prevention program) factors that influence changes in physical and relational victimization over the first three years of elementary school. Children (n = 423) reported their experiences of peer victimization at entry into Grade 1 and at the end of Grade 1, Grade 2, and Grade 3. On average, trajectories of both physical and relational victimization declined. However, for individual children, teacher-rated aggression was associated with increases in physical and relational victimization, while emotional dysregulation was associated with attenuation of longitudinal declines in physical victimization and increases in relational victimization. Individual differences in sex and age at entry into Grade 1 did not significantly influence victimization trajectories over Grades 1 to 3. Children who participated in the WITS? victimization prevention program showed significant declines in physical and relational victimization. Levels of victimization among nonparticipants remained stable. Implications of child and context characteristics for preventing peer victimization in elementary school are discussed.     

The significance of attachment security for children’s social competence with peers: a meta-analytic study

This meta-analytic review examines the association between attachment during the early life course and social competence with peers during childhood, and compares the strength of this association with those for externalizing and internalizing symptomatology. Based on 80 independent samples (N = 4441), the association between security and peer competence was significant (d = 0.39, CI 0.32; 0.47) and not moderated by the age at which peer competence was assessed. Avoidance (d = 0.17, CI 0.05; 0.30), resistance (d = 0.29, CI 0.09; 0.48), and disorganization (d = 0.25, CI 0.10; 0.40) were significantly associated with lower peer competence. Attachment security was significantly more strongly associated with peer competence than internalizing (but not externalizing) symptomatology. Discussion focuses on the significance of early attachment for the development of peer competence versus externalizing and internalizing psychopathology.     

Specificity of relations between children's control-related beliefs and internalizing and externalizing psychopathology

The authors examined the specificity of the relation between 3 types of control-related beliefs and internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in a sample of 290 clinic-referred children aged 7 to 17 years. Self-reported beliefs about control (the capacity to cause an intended outcome), contingency (the degree to which a desired outcome can be controlled by a relevant behavior), and competence (an individual's ability to produce the relevant behavior) across 3 domains (academic, behavioral, and social) showed more specific relations with psychopathology than have been previously reported. Among children with externalizing psychopathology, internalizing psychopathology may be specifically associated with increased self-critical awareness about their conduct; externalizing psychopathology may attenuate the specific negative relation between internalizing psychopathology and control-related beliefs in the social domain.