GAP-43在新生大鼠视网膜及其诱导的骨髓间充质干细胞向视网膜神经节样细胞分化过程中的表达

目的 探讨生长相关蛋白43(growth associated protein,GAP-43)在新生大鼠视网膜发育过程中及在以新生大鼠视网膜细胞诱导体外培养的骨髓间充质干细胞(bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell,BMSC)向视网膜神经节样细胞定向分化中的作用.方法 体外培养新生3 d大乳鼠视网膜细胞,应用免疫细胞化学方法检测GAP-43的表达;提取新生大鼠视网膜细胞总RNA,应用RT-PCR方法检测GAP-43 mRNA的表达.体外培养大鼠BMSC至第3代,经流式细胞仪检测干细胞表面标志物进行鉴定,应用乳鼠视网膜细胞诱导BMSC分化,观察诱导后细胞的形态学变化,并应用免疫细胞化学方法对诱导后第5天的细胞进行神经元及视网膜神经节细胞标志物NSE、nestin、GAP-43、thyl.1鉴定,并应用RT-PCR的方法检测、分析GAP-43 mRNA的表达情况.结果 体外培养的新生大乳鼠视网膜细胞应用免疫细胞化学方法可检测到GAP43阳性表达;RT-PcR方法检测到新生大鼠的GAP-43 mRNA的表达;第3代BMSC经流式细胞仪检测CD71(+)、C LY29(+)、CD34(-)、CD45(-),经与大乳鼠视网膜细胞共培养的方法可诱导BMSC分化为视网膜神经节样细胞,免疫细胞化学染色表明其表达特异性标志物NSE、nestin、GAP-43、thyl.1,分化后的神经节样细胞内可检测到GAP-43 mRNA阳性表达:结论本研究结果显示CAP-43不仅参与了大鼠视网膜发育过程,且GAP-43在以乳鼠视网膜细胞诱导BMsc定向分化为视网膜神经节样细胞这一过程中具有重要意义.     

人视网膜星形胶质细胞发育及起源的研究

背景 视网膜星形胶质细胞是视网膜主要的神经胶质细胞,其起源及演变过程一直是国内外研究的热点和难点. 目的 探讨人胚胎眼视网膜星形胶质细胞的起源及发育.方法 收集33例自愿终止妊娠的流产人胚胎眼标本,其中8 ～12孕周者20例,15～ 17孕周者2例,19～ 23孕周者4例,25～ 28孕周者4例,30 ～32孕周者3例.对眼球壁切片进行常规组织病理学检查以观察不同胚龄人视网膜发育的形态学变化,分别采用免疫组织化学法及免疫荧光法动态观察不同胚龄人视网膜星形胶质细胞起源位点及发育过程中胶质纤维酸性蛋白( GFAP)表达的变化.结果 人胚6～7周视杯处于视网膜分层发育阶段,9周时视杯内层原无细胞层出现分化不成熟的圆短梭形细胞；胚龄15周时视网膜主要层次可见,分化的细胞增加,但未发现GFAP阳性细胞；胚龄19周视网膜可见梭形细胞从返折部原始神经上皮迁出,并可见这些细胞中GFAP呈阳性表达；胚龄25～ 26周后极部视网膜可见GFAP表达阳性的梭形细胞,这些细胞围绕视网膜血管分布,与血管壁联系密切,邻近锯齿缘处的视网膜内层可见表达GFAP的星形或梭形细胞与睫状体非色素上皮相连,但锯齿缘稍后与赤道区之间并未见GFAP阳性细胞；胚龄28周,视网膜星形胶质细胞呈典型的星状,其突起伸达视网膜内网状层. 结论 人视网膜星形胶质细胞至少存在3个起源位点,即血管前体细胞/周皮细胞、视盘旁原始神经上皮及邻近锯齿缘的睫状体无色素上皮.     

睫状缘色素细胞与骨髓间充质干细胞体外共培养构建视网膜干细胞的初步研究

目的 探索睫状缘色素细胞(pigmented cells from the ciliary margin,PCM)与骨髓间充质干细胞(bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells,BM)体外共培养构建视网膜干细胞的可行性.方法 按照组织贴壁培养方法分别分离培养原代大鼠BM和PCM,再将二者进行直接共培养(1∶2),观察细胞生长情况;MTT方法进行增殖能力检测;在促神经分化诱导液中诱导21 d后行免疫荧光染色,观察视网膜干细胞相关分子标记物包括视杆细胞Rho1 D4、双极神经元CHX10和Müller胶质细胞10E4的表达.结果原代分离培养的两种细胞生长状态良好;共培养后细胞总体的增殖活性虽然显著低于单纯BM,但比单纯PCM有了一定提升;诱导分化后单纯PCM视网膜干细胞相关分子标记物表达阳性率显著高于BM,而共培养后的细胞表达阳性率显著高于单纯PCM和BM.结论 采用BM与PCM共培养能够获得大量表达视网膜干细胞相关分子标记物的细胞群,有望成为视网膜干细胞来源,用于视神经损伤修复.     

SD大鼠视网膜神经细胞培养上清液对胚胎干细胞体外分化的诱导作用

目的 探讨视网膜神经细胞培养的上清液对胚胎干细胞（embryonic stem cells, ES）体外分化的诱导作用。 方法 收集SD大鼠视网膜神经细胞培养上清液，抽滤后按2∶3比例与DMEM培养液混合，用该混合液进行ES 细胞的诱导分化，每天倒置相差显微镜观察ES细胞的生长及分化情况,对诱导分化后的细胞进行神经丝蛋白(nellcofilament protein，NFP)免疫组织化学检查。 结果 加入了视网膜神经细胞培养上清液的ES细胞生长出类似神经细胞突起样结构，NFP免疫组织化学染色阳性。 结论 SD大鼠视网膜神经细胞培养的上清液具有诱导ES细胞向神经细胞分化的作用。 (中华眼底病杂志, 2002, 18: 134-136)     

对鸡胚视网膜细胞DNA合成的放射自显影研究

目的　研究鸡胚视网膜细胞发生过程中的形态变化与DNA合成代谢的关系。 方法　应用光镜放射自显影技术,对 1, 2, 3, 4, 7d鸡胚视网膜氚标胸腺嘧啶的分布进行观察。 结果　随胚龄增加氚标胸腺嘧啶的银颗粒数,在视杯后部由多到少,而在视杯前部则由少到多,均以 2d胚达高峰。胚龄早期各部银颗粒数外层多于内层;但胚龄晚期则内层增多,外层消失。 结论　视网膜细胞的分化成熟由后部移向前部,视细胞和视神经细胞分化较早;伴随视网膜细胞的分化成熟,DNA的合成数量和区域分布表现为动态变化。     

体外培养人胚胎来源视网膜干细胞的诱导分化

目的 探讨培养的人胚胎来源视网膜干细胞向视网膜终末细胞分化的可能性。方法 来自16～20周人胚胎的视网膜干细胞进行无血清体外培养,并分别进行有血清条件下体外诱导和用含视网膜色素上皮的眼杯模拟体内条件诱导的观察,采用免疫荧光法检测干细胞和视网膜终末细胞表面抗原的表达,采用实时荧光定量PCR法检测诱导前后细胞nestin基因在mRNA水平的表达差异。结果 从人胚胎视网膜神经感觉层分离出的视网膜干细胞,在体外诱导的条件下,可表达视网膜终末细胞标记PKCα、GFAP、Thy1,少数细胞表达nestin和MAP2;在模拟体内环境诱导后,则不仅表达上述细胞标记,而且rhodopsin和syntaxin表达阳性。实时荧光定量PcR法检测显示：诱导后细胞nestin基因表达量较诱导前细胞明显降低。结论 RPE可以促进体外培养的视网膜干细胞向视杆细胞和无长突细胞分化。(中华眼科杂志,2004,40：448-452)     

鸡胚视网膜细胞RNA合成的放射自显影研究

目的　研究视网膜细胞发生过程中的形态变化与RNA合成代谢的关系。方法应用光镜放射自显影技术 ,对 1、2、3、4、7d鸡胚视网膜氚标尿嘧啶的分布进行了观察。结果　视杯各部的氚标尿嘧啶银颗粒数均随胚龄增加而增多 ,以前部最为显著 ;标记细胞的银颗粒主要分布在细胞核内。结论　伴随视网膜细胞的分化成熟 ,RNA的合成数量和区域分布表现为明显的动态变化。     

对视网膜细胞蛋白合成的加龄变化研究

应用光镜放射自显技术的胎生期至生后一年鼠的视网膜各层细胞的蛋白合成变化进行了研究，结果表明，视杆，视锥细胞生后至一年始终保持着旺盛的蛋白合成功能，胎生期至生后一周，视杆，视锥细胞处于不成熟的分化阶段，视网膜各层细胞的胞核及胞质内切可见记颗粒，生后第一天其标记率出现第一个高峰，视杆，视锥和双极细胞分化成熟后，可见标记颗粒主要分布在视细胞的胞体，内节及双极细胞的胞质内，且视细胞的标记颗粒多于双极细胞，     

骨髓间充质干细胞在碘酸钠注射大鼠视网膜下的分化

目的 研究骨髓间充质干细胞(BMMSCs)在视网膜色素上皮(RPE)受损的大鼠模型眼中的分化情况.方法 体外培养Wistar大鼠的BMMSCs,用病毒上清液转染EGFP,移植到经静脉注射NaIO3破坏RPE细胞的大鼠的视网膜下腔,用免疫荧光标记的方法 对BMMSCs进行追踪并观察术后5周的分化情况.结果 BMMSCs的EGFP转染比例可达到76.9%,术后第5周可见BMMSCs位于视网膜下区域,未整合入神经视网膜层,并表达角蛋白(CK)、视紫红质(rhodopsin)和胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP).结论 BMMSCs植入RPE受损伤的大鼠视网膜下腔后可存活,并表达RPE细胞、光感受器细胞和星形胶质细胞的特异性标志.     

体外诱导大鼠视网膜Müller细胞向神经节细胞定向分化的研究

目的 研究鼠视网膜Müller细胞经体外条件培养基诱导后去分化为神经干细胞及进一步定向分化成神经节样细胞的特性.方法 实验研究.体外培养出生后7-10 d的Sprague Dawley大鼠视网膜Müller细胞,应用逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)法及免疫荧光染色法鉴定Müller细胞纯度.取培养的第3或4代Müller细胞,用含有N2、碱性成纤维细胞生长因子和表皮生长因子的Delbeccon's modified Eagle's medium(DMEM)-F12干细胞条件培养基培养3～5 d后,再用含5%胎牛血清、脑源性神经营养因子和视黄酸的DMEM培养基诱导分化7～10 d,采用免疫荧光染色法分别鉴定去分化及再诱导分化后的细胞.结果 RT-PCR及免疫荧光染色结果显示,分离培养的视网膜Müller细胞纯度可达(95.17±2.68)%以上.干细胞条件培养基培养3～5 d后,大部分Müller细胞汇集形成细胞球,经免疫荧光染色法鉴定,显示细胞球内(95.26 ±1.35)%以上的细胞Nestin表达阳性,(90.33±4.12)%以上细胞BrdU表达阳性.将这些细胞球进一步诱导分化后,可见细胞球内细胞可向外扩展、铺开,分化出形态各异的细胞,其中约(21.14±1.49)%细胞表达神经节细胞特异性标记物Thy1.1阳性.结论 成年啮齿动物视网膜Müller细胞经体外条件培养基诱导后,可以产生具有增殖能力和分化潜能的神经干细胞,并可进一步定向分化为神经节样细胞,这为干细胞研究和视神经再生治疗等提供了新的方法和手段.     

Distribution of Müller stem cells within the neural retina: Evidence for the existence of a ciliary margin-like zone in the adult human eye

Much interest has been generated by the identification of neural stem cells in the human neural retina and ciliary body. However, it is not clear whether stem cells identified in these ocular compartments are of the same origin or whether they ontogenically derive from different cell populations. This study examined the in situ anatomical distribution of these cells within the neural retina and ciliary body, as well as their ability to proliferate in response to EGF. Human retinae and ciliary body were examined for co-expression of Nestin, cellular retinaldehyde binding (CRALBP) or Vimentin, and the stem cell markers SOX2, CHX10, NOTCH1 and SHH. Retinal explants were cultured with epidermal growth factor (EGF) to assess retinal cell proliferation. Intense Nestin and CRALBP staining was observed in the neural retinal margin, where cells formed bundles of spindle cells (resembling glial cells) that lacked lamination and co-stained for SOX2, CHX10 and SHH. This staining differentiated the neural retina from the ciliary epithelium, which expressed SOX2, CHX10 and NOTCH1 but not Nestin or CRALBP. Nestin and CRALBP expression decreased towards the posterior retina, where it anatomically identified a population of Müller glia. All Vimentin positive Müller glia co-stained for SOX2, but only few Vimentin positive cells expressed Nestin and SOX2. Cells of the retinal margin and the inner nuclear layer (INL), where the soma of Müller glia predominate, re-entered the cell cycle upon retinal explant culture with EGF. Lack of lamination and abundance of Müller glia expressing stem cell markers in the marginal region of the adult human retina resemble the ciliary marginal zone (CMZ) of fish and amphibians. The findings that cells in this CM-like zone, as well in the inner nuclear layer proliferate in response to EGF suggest that the adult human retina has regenerative potential. Identification of factors that may promote retinal regeneration in the adult human eye would provide efficient treatments for retinal degenerative conditions for which treatments are not yet available.     

Patterned expression of BDNF and NT-3 in the retina and anterior segment of the developing mammalian eye.

PURPOSE: The neurotrophins brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) are hypothesized to play an important role in vertebrate eye development because of their patterned expression in the developing and adult neuroretina, their regulated response to retinal and optic nerve injury, and the effects of altered neurotrophin signaling on retinal development. To further characterize the role of these neurotrophins in mammalian eye development and maintenance, the pattern of expression of BDNF and NT-3 was analyzed in the developing and mature mouse eye. METHODS: Using mouse strains in which the reporter gene lacZ, encoding the enzyme beta-galactosidase, was targeted to either the BDNF or NT-3 locus, the expression of BDNF and NT-3 in the eyes of mice heterozygous for these mutations was analyzed by enzyme histochemistry during embryogenesis, postnatal development, and adulthood. RESULTS: BDNF and NT-3 expression were first observed in the inner and outer segments of the developing optic cup at embryonic days 10.5 to 11.5. As the retina matured, BDNF expression was restricted to retinal ganglion cells and a subset of cells in the inner nuclear layer (INL), whereas NT-3 expression was confined to a small subset of cells in the INL and ganglion cell layer. Both neurotrophins were expressed within the developing retinal pigment epithelium. In the anterior segment, BDNF and NT-3 were expressed at high levels in the developing and mature ciliary epithelium. In the lens and cornea, however, these neurotrophins displayed distinct patterns of expression during development and adulthood. BDNF expression was found in the lens epithelium, immature trabecular meshwork, corneal endothelium, and corneal epithelium, whereas NT-3 expression was confined to the corneal epithelium. CONCLUSIONS: BDNF and NT-3 exhibit different, yet overlapping, patterns of expression during the development and differentiation of the mouse eye. In addition to the neuroretina, the spatiotemporal expression of BDNF and NT-3 may play an important role in the development and maintenance of the lens, ciliary body, trabecular meshwork, and cornea.     

Systematic analysis of E-, N- and P-cadherin expression in mouse eye development

Cadherins are a family of Ca(2+)-dependent cell adhesion molecules. Through their homophilic binding interactions, cadherins play important roles in tissue formation and maintenance during development. Here the authors compare the expression patterns of the three classical cadherins, E-, N- and P-cadherin, during mouse eye development from embryonic day 9.5 (E9.5) to adult. It was found that: (1) The expression patterns of N- and P-cadherin are mutually exclusive in most ocular tissues during development. N-cadherin mRNA is detected specifically in the lens placode during lens induction at E9.5, and is absent in the rest of the surface ectodermal tissues. In contrast, P-cadherin is expressed in the surface ectoderm but not in the lens vesicle. N-cadherin is expressed continuously in the lens pit, lens vesicle, and in the epithelial cells and newly differentiating fiber cells of the mature lens. P-cadherin is expressed in the epithelial cells of the cornea, eyelids and Harderian gland. Reciprocal expression patterns of N-and P-cadherins are also seen during retinal development. N-cadherin is initially expressed in both the inner and outer layers of the optic cup at E9.5. N-cadherin expression persists in the inner layer as it develops into neural retina, but is turned off in the outer layer where the cells differentiate into retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells and express P-cadherin. Reciprocal patterns of expression are also seen in the ciliary epithelium. N-cadherin is expressed in the inner layer and P-cadherin in the outer layer of the ciliary epithelium. (2) E- and P-cadherins are epithelial cadherins. Their expression patterns in the eye are not identical. Both cadherins are found in the epithelia of the cornea, eyelid and Harderian gland. In contrast, lens epithelial cells express E- but not P-cadherin, and RPE cells express P- but not E-cadherin. (3) In addition to its high expression in surface ectoderm-derived tissues, E-cadherin mRNA was also detected in some of the retinal ganglion neurons at postnatal day 14 (P14). E-cadherin expression in the neural retina has not been reported before. This study shows that cell fate determination in the eye occurs in conjunction with distinct changes in the patterns of cadherin gene expression.     

Expression of the cell surface antigens RET-PE2 and N-CAM by rat retinal pigment epithelial cells during development and in tissue culture

Invagination of the optic vesicle to form the optic cup results in the formation of two apposed layers of neuroepithelium which follow divergent developmental pathways. Changes in the expression of cell surface molecules may be either the cause or result of important inductive signals during this process. We have used immunological reagents to study the expression of two molecules in the rat: the neural cell adhesion molecule N-CAM, and a cell membrane-associated protein which is specific for pigment epithelium in the adult, RET-PE2. Both N-CAM and RET-PE2 are present in both layers of the optic cup at embryonic age E13, but they become restricted to inner retina and pigment epithelium, respectively, by E17 and maintain that pattern of expression in the normal adult. Culture of pigment epithelial cells results in the reexpression of N-CAM and the continued expression of RET-PE2. Western blotting reveals that the size and relative proportions of the 180- and 140-kDa N-CAM molecules synthesized by rat pigment epithelial cells in vitro differ from that made by rat brain, retina and liver. Embryonic RPE N-CAM contains the sulfated carbohydrate recognized by the HNK-1 antibody, but this epitope was not present on N-CAM synthesized by cultured RPE cells. The reexpression of an embryonic antigen when placed in culture suggests that pigment epithelial cells retain some degree of plasticity in the adult state.     

转化生长因子-β2对体外培养的小鼠视网膜干细胞的诱导分化作用

目的研究转化生长因子（TGF）-β₂是否能促进体外培养的鼠视网膜干细胞的分化及其作用的强弱。方法小鼠胚胎在解剖显微镜下分离视网膜干细胞并进行培养，传代，nestin和chx-10免疫荧光鉴定；将第六代细胞进行诱导分化，并进行抗胶质纤维酸性蛋白（GFAP）、抗opsin、抗b-tubulin、抗蛋白激酶C（PKC）免疫荧光染色，鉴定终末细胞。结果培养细胞经TGF-β₂诱导可向成熟细胞分化, 免疫荧光检测显示分化细胞的数量较胎牛血清诱导的分化细胞数量多。结论TGF-β₂能诱导视网膜干细胞分化为视网膜细胞；其诱导分化作用强于单独的血清诱导。(中华眼底病杂志, 2007, 23: 104-107)     

The spatial and temporal expression patterns of netrin receptors, DCC and neogenin, in the developing mouse retina

Recently it has been demonstrated that the guidance of retinal ganglion cell (rgc) axons through the optic disc is dependent on the DCC/netrin-1 axonal guidance system. To gain further insight into the function of the netrin receptors, DCC and Neogenin, in retinal development we have studied the expression patterns of these receptors in the embryonic mouse retina. Neogenin mRNA was restricted to a single neural cell type, the rgc. However, strong Neogenin mRNA expression was observed in the extending fiber cells of the developing lens suggesting a role for Neogenin in the migration events shaping the early lens. Our studies demonstrated that DCC mRNA was expressed at high levels in chains of closely opposed neurons as they migrated towards the emerging mantle layer in the early retina (E12.5-E13.5) suggesting a role for DCC in the migration of neurons out of the ventricular zone. DCC protein expression was high on rgc axons as they actively navigated through the optic disc into the optic nerve. At birth, when the majority of rgc axons had projected through the optic disc, DCC protein was no longer detectable on the distal axonal segments within the optic nerve despite significant DCC protein expression on the proximal axonal membranes in the nerve fiber layer. These observations suggest that a localized down-regulation of DCC protein occurs on projecting axonal membranes once the DCC guidance function is no longer required. We also demonstrated that DCC mRNA and protein were expressed by amacrine cells and Müller glial cells while DCC mRNA was detected in horizontal cells. Taken together, these expression patterns suggest a role for DCC in axon outgrowth and/or pathfinding for a variety of retinal neurons and in the migration of newly born neurons within the developing retina.     

OPA1 expression in the human retina and optic nerve

Mutations in the optic atrophy type 1 (OPA1) gene give rise to human autosomal dominant optic atrophy. The purpose of this study is to investigate OPA1 protein expression in the human retina and optic nerve. A rabbit polyclonal antiserum was generated using a fusion protein covering amino acids 647 to 808 of the human OPA1 protein as the immunogenic antigen. Western blot and immunofluorescence staining were performed to examine OPA1 expression in the human retina and optic nerve. In human retina, we found that OPA1 expression was clearly present in retinal ganglion cells and photoreceptors. OPA1 immunoreactivity was also present in the nerve fiber layer, inner plexiform layer and outer plexiform layer. However, OPA1 protein was not detected in the choline acetyltransferase-positive, calretinin-positive, and calbindin-positive amacrine cells, nor in the calbindin-positive horizontal cells. In the human optic nerve, expression of OPA1 was present in the axonal tract that was labeled with neurofilament specific antibody. In conclusion, expression of OPA1 gene is present in the mitochondria-rich regions of the retina and optic nerve. This suggests that OPA1 protein might be involved in the functioning of the mitochondria that are present in both inner and outer retinal neurons.     

Retinal regeneration and stem cell therapy in retinitis pigmentosa

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is the leading cause of hereditary blindness, and there is currently no available treatment that can either significantly slow the progression of this disease or restore lost vision. Amphibians and birds exhibit different strategies for retinal regeneration, including the proliferation of cells in the ciliary margin and transdifferentiation of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and Muller glia. The mammalian retina does not have the innate ability to regenerate damaged retina, but research is actively exploring pathways that promote endogenous regeneration. Because the inner retinal architecture is largely preserved, even in advanced cases of RP, an alternative is to replace the degenerated photoreceptor cells, thereby replenishing the photoreceptor population. The transplantation of embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, embryonic retinal progenitors (postmitotic photoreceptor precursors), and hippocampal neuronal progenitors have been investigated for this purpose. The encouraging results demonstrate the integration and possible functional connection between the transplanted cells and the inner retinal circuitry of the host. In this review, we summarize recent advancements in this field and their potential for the treatment of RP and other retinal degenerations.