There Is No Relationship between Academic Achievement and Body Mass Index among Fourth-Grade,Predominantly African-American Children

School-based initiatives to combat childhood obesity may use academic performance to measure success. This cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between academic achievement and body mass index percentile, socioeconomic status (SES), and race by linking existing datasets that are not routinely linked. Data from a school-based project (with National Institutes of Health funding) concerning dietary recall accuracy were linked with data from the state's Department of Education through the state's Office of Research and Statistics. Data were available on 1,504 fourth-grade, predominantly African-American children from 18 schools total in one district in South Carolina during the 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 school years. School staff administered standardized tests in English, math, social studies, and science. Researchers measured children's weight and height. Children were categorized as low-SES, medium-SES, or high-SES based on eligibility for free, reduced-price, or full-price school meals, respectively. Results from marginal regression analyses for each sex for the four academic subjects, separately and combined, showed that test scores were not related to body mass index percentile, but were positively related to SES (P values <0.0001), and were related to race, with lower scores for African-American children than children of other races (P values <0.0039). Cost-efficient opportunities exist to create longitudinal data sets to investigate relationships between academic performance and obesity across kindergarten through 12th-grade children. State agencies can house body mass index data in state-based central repositories where staff can use globally unique identifiers and link data across agencies. Results from such studies could potentially change the way school administrators view nutrition and physical education.     

Is There a Relationship Between Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement? Positive Results From Public School Children in the Northeastern United States

OBJECTIVES:  To determine relationships between physical fitness and academic achievement in diverse, urban public school children.
METHODS:  This cross-sectional study used public school data from 2004 to 2005. Academic achievement was assessed as a passing score on Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) achievement tests in Mathematics (fourth, sixth, and eighth grade, n = 1103) and in English (fourth and seventh grade, n = 744). Fitness achievement was assessed as the number of physical fitness tests passed during physical education (PE). Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess the probability of passing the MCAS tests, controlling for students' weight status (BMI z score), ethnicity, gender, grade, and socioeconomic status (school lunch enrollment).
RESULTS:  The odds of passing both the MCAS Mathematics test and the MCAS English test increased as the number of fitness tests passed increased (p < .0001 and p < .05, respectively).
CONCLUSIONS:  Results show statistically significant relationships between fitness and academic achievement, though the direction of causation is not known. While more research is required, promoting fitness by increasing opportunities for physical activity during PE, recess, and out of school time may support academic achievement.     

The relationship between school absence, academic performance, and asthma status

BACKGROUND: Children with asthma experience more absenteeism from school compared with their nonasthma peers. Excessive absenteeism is related to lower student grades, psychological, social, and educational adjustment. Less is known about the relationship between the presence of asthma and the academic achievement in school-aged children. Since students with asthma miss more days from school, this may negatively impact their academic achievement. The goal of this study was to investigate the relationships between absenteeism, presence of asthma, and asthma severity level with standardized test level performance in a predominantly African American urban school district. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted of 3812 students (aged 8-17 years) who took the Missouri Assessment Program (MAP) standardized test during the 2002-2003 academic year. RESULTS: After adjustment for covariates, a significant inverse relationship was found between absenteeism and test level performance on the MAP standardized test in all children (F = 203.9, p < .001). There was no overall difference in test level achievement between those with and without asthma (p = .12). Though not statistically different, those with persistent asthma showed a modestly increased likelihood of scoring below Nearing Proficient compared with those with mild intermittent asthma (adjusted odds ratio = 1.93, 95% confidence intervals = 0.93-4.01, p = .08). CONCLUSIONS: A negative impact of absenteeism on standardized test level achievement was demonstrated in children from an urban African American school district. Children with asthma perform the same academically as their nonasthma peers. However, those with persistent asthma show a trend of performing worse on MAP standardized test scores and have more absence days compared with other students. More research is warranted on the effects of persistent asthma on academic achievement.     

Association of School‐Based Physical Activity Opportunities,Socioeconomic Status,and Third‐Grade Reading

BACKGROUND

Socioeconomic status (SES) is the most accurate predictor of academic performance in US schools. Third‐grade reading is highly predictive of high school graduation. Chronic physical activity (PA) is shown to improve cognition and academic performance. We hypothesized that school‐based PA opportunities (recess and physical education) would moderate the negative association between SES and third‐grade reading.

METHODS

Schools serving third‐grade students were surveyed (N = 1279) for minutes/week of PA opportunities. Allotted weekly PA time and achievement data from participating schools (N = 784) were recorded and analyzed. To test the moderator hypothesis, moderated multiple regression analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

The interaction of PA opportunities and SES explained a significant increase in variance in third‐grade reading (b = .053, p < .001), thus moderating the relationship between SES and third‐grade reading. Further analysis showed that schools offering greater than 225 minutes/week of PA opportunities experienced a greater (+5%) moderating effect.

CONCLUSION

School‐based PA opportunities positively moderate the relationship between SES and third‐grade reading, and lowest SES schools experience greater moderating effects. Future research should consider PA opportunities as a moderator of the SES‐academic achievement relationship, and school policy makers should consider the influence that PA opportunities have on student achievement at varying SES levels.     

Parental perceptions of children's agency: Parental warmth,school achievement and adjustment

The present study examined Swedish mothers’ and fathers’ warmth towards their children in relation to their children's agency. It also examined the longitudinal relation between agency and children's externalising, internalising, and school achievement. Swedish children's mothers and fathers (N?=?93) were interviewed at three time points (when children were 8, 9, and 10 years old) about their warmth towards their children, children's agency, and children's externalising and internalising behaviours and school achievement. Parental warmth at Time 1 was significantly correlated with child agency at Time 2, which was significantly correlated with child externalising and internalising behaviours and academic achievement at Time 3. There were no differences between girls and boys. Results from this study indicate that Swedish parents’ warmth is directly related to subsequent perceptions of children's agency, which in turn are related to subsequently lower child externalising and internalising problems and higher academic achievement. These findings held in the context of a three-year longitudinal study and for both boys and girls, suggesting the importance of child agency in the link between parental warmth and children's adjustment.     

Prevalence of overweight in north Florida elementary and middle school children: effects of age, sex, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status

BACKGROUND: The number of overweight children has been rapidly increasing, although its prevalence varies by age, sex, ethnicity, and socioeconomic (SES) status. METHODS: Height and weight assessments were used to calculate body mass index (BMI) and BMI percentile on more than 17,000 children in 1 north Florida school district's elementary and middle schools. Based on the child's BMI percentile, each child was placed into 1 of 4 groups: underweight, normal, at risk for overweight, and overweight. Logistic regression was used to test the relative contribution of sex, ethnicity, school (elementary vs middle), age, and SES (indicated by free/reduced vs full-pay lunch status) to a child's weight classification. RESULTS: Overall, 36.2% of the children were either overweight (18.9%) or at risk for overweight (17.4%). Approximately 30% of the kindergarten children were overweight (14.0%) or at risk for overweight (15.5%). African American children were most likely to begin kindergarten overweight. The prevalence of overweight increased for all ethnic groups during the elementary school years. However, African American girls and Hispanic boys were more likely to be overweight than any other ethnic group; Asian girls were least likely to be overweight. These findings could not be readily explained by the effects of SES. Higher SES appeared to be protective but only for white and Hispanic children. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm the increasing prevalence of overweight in US school children, especially among African American girls and Hispanic boys.     

The relationship among state laws, district policies, and elementary school-based measurement of children's body mass index

BACKGROUND: School‐based measurement of children's body mass index (BMI) is a useful tool for tracking childhood obesity rates, and may be an effective intervention strategy for reducing the increasing trends in obesity. This article examines the relationship between state law, district policy, and school‐level BMI measurement practices. METHODS: Data were collected during 3 school years (2006‐2007, 2007‐2008, 2008‐2009) as part of an annual study on health policies and practices in a nationally representative sample of US public elementary schools. Data collected included school‐level data via a mailed questionnaire, and district‐level policies and state laws from publicly available sources. We examined whether state laws and district policies were linked to school‐level BMI measurement, either directly, or via a mediation effect. RESULTS: Schools were most likely to measure student BMI if there was a state law in place (65.0% of schools) than where there was not a state law regarding BMI measurement (38.4% of schools; χ² = 120.91, p < .001). However, school‐level BMI measurement did not differ by whether the district had a relevant policy or not (49.8% vs. 49.2%, ns). These effects held up in multivariate logistic regression models controlling for relevant school‐level covariates (region, race/ethnicity, location, school size, and socioeconomic status). Schools in the south and those with a majority of White students were most likely to measure students' BMI. CONCLUSION: State laws are associated with school‐level BMI measurement, and therefore may be a helpful tool in monitoring and addressing childhood obesity.     

Adolescent health behavior, contentment in school, and academic achievement

OBJECTIVES: To examine the association between health behavior indicators, school contentment, and academic achievement. METHODS: Structural equation modeling with 5810 adolescents. RESULTS: Our model explained 36% of the variance in academic achievement and 24% in school contentment. BMI and sedentary lifestyle were negatively related to school contentment and academic achievement, but physical activity was positively related to school contentment and academic achievement (P < .01). School contentment was strongly related to academic achievement but only a weak mediator of the health behavior indicators. CONCLUSION: Findings may inform the efforts to improve academic achievement and the general health status of youth.     

The Association of Obesity and School Absenteeism Attributed to Illness or Injury Among Adolescents in the United States, 2009

PurposeSchool attendance can impact academic performance. Childhood obesity-related physical and psychosocial consequences are potentially associated with school absenteeism. Thus, we examined the association between school absenteeism attributed to illness or injury and obesity among adolescents aged 12–17 years.MethodsWe used a weighted sample of 3,470 U.S. adolescents from the 2009 National Health Interview Survey. School absenteeism was measured from the parent-reported number of sick days taken in the preceding 12 months. Body mass index was calculated from parent-reported weight and height. Weight status was classified based on the sex-specific body mass index-for-age percentile defined by the CDC growth charts. Poisson regression was conducted to examine the association between school absenteeism and weight status, controlling for selected sociodemographic characteristics and disease status.ResultsThe mean number of annual sick days was 3.9 days overall; 3.4 days among normal-weight, 4.4 days among overweight, and 4.5 days among obese adolescents. Obese adolescents had a higher proportion of missing ≥4 days of school per year than adolescents of normal weight. Our multivariate analyses found that compared with adolescents of normal weight, overweight and obese adolescents had greater than one-third more sick days annually (rate ratio = 1.36 for overweight and 1.37 for obese adolescents).ConclusionsOverweight and obese adolescents had 36% and 37% more sick days, respectively, than adolescents of normal weight. The results suggest another potential aspect of obesity prevention and reduction efforts among children and families is to improve children's school attendance.     

The Long Term Educational Effects of Half‐Day vs Full‐Day Kindergarten

This study examined the effects of full‐day and half‐day kindergarten on children's second grade academic outcomes. The subjects for the study were 974 second grade children from a large Midwestern school district. Of these second‐graders, 730 of them had been in full‐day kindergarten and 244 were in half‐day kindergarten. The following measures were compared: (a) children's second grade reading and math scores from the Iowa Test of Basic Skills; (b) whether or not they had been retained in grade during the first three years of school; (c) whether or not they had been referred for special education services during the first three years of school; and (d) kindergarten attendance records. The results indicated that children who were in a full‐day kindergarten program scored significantly higher on both math and reading on a standardized achievement test. In addition, there were fewer children from the full‐day cohort who had been retained in grade. There were no differences in the number of special education referrals between the two groups. Finally, children who attended full‐day kindergarten were absent less during the school year than the half day kindergarten group. The results are discussed in terms of both social and academic perspectives.     

Perception of overweight is associated with poor academic performance in US adolescents

BACKGROUND: To improve understanding of the mechanisms affecting the relationship between adolescent obesity and poor academic performance, we examined the association of overweight or perceived weight status with academic achievement. METHODS: We performed a cross‐sectional study of 14–17‐year‐olds (N = 11,012) from the nationally representative 2003 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. The main outcome measure was self‐reported grades (mostly A, B, C, D, or F). The primary independent variables were medically defined overweight (body mass index [BMI] ≥ 85th percentile), obesity (BMI ≥ 95th percentile), and participants' perception of their weight status. RESULTS: Medically defined overweight youth were less likely to report higher grades in unadjusted analysis (OR 0.67, 95% CI: 0.60‐0.76, p < .001) and after adjustment for demographics, depression, television and video game use, and physical activity (OR 0.83, 95% CI: 0.74–0.94, p = .003). Statistically significant results also were seen with medically defined obese participants. Youth who perceived themselves as overweight were less likely to report higher grades (OR 0.82, 95% CI: 0.73–0.92, p = .001) in unadjusted analysis and after adjustment for the same variables (OR 0.79, 95% CI: 0.68–0.91, p = .002). The perception of overweight was a more significant determinant of academic performance (OR 0.81, 95% CI: 0.69–0.95, p = .012) compared to medically defined obesity (OR 0.90, 95% CI: 0.77–1.05, p = .174). CONCLUSIONS: Perceived overweight status is negatively associated with academic performance, regardless of actual weight status. These findings suggest that perception of overweight may be a mechanism for prior results indicating a negative association of obesity and academic achievements, and have implications for the academic health of these adolescents.     

Child and parent characteristics,parental expectations,and child behaviours related to preschool children's interest in literacy

The current study examined the relations between children's literacy interest and parent and child characteristics (i.e. parents' education level and child's gender), parental expectations of their child's school attainment and achievement and the child's positive and problem behaviours. Participants were 61 preschoolers from predominately low‐income families enrolled in local preschool programmes. Parents completed questionnaires reporting demographic characteristics, parents' expectations and their child's literacy interest. Preschool teachers reported on children's behaviours in the classroom using standard behaviour‐rating scales. Child gender was marginally related to child literacy interest, but parent education was not significantly correlated with interest. Parents' expectation of their child's school achievement was significantly correlated with child literacy interest, but parental expectations about attainment were not. Overall, teachers' reports of children's positive and problem behaviours were correlated with child literacy interest in the expected direction. Interpretation and implications of the findings and future directions for research are discussed.     

Associations of physical fitness and academic performance among schoolchildren

BACKGROUND: Public schools provide opportunities for physical activity and fitness surveillance, but are evaluated and funded based on students' academic performance, not their physical fitness. Empirical research evaluating the connections between fitness and academic performance is needed to justify curriculum allocations to physical activity programs. METHODS: Analyses were based on a convenience sample of 254,743 individually matched standardized academic (TAKS?) and fitness (FITNESSGRAM^®) test records of students, grades 3–11, collected by 13 Texas school districts. We categorized fitness results in quintiles by age and gender and used mixed effects regression models to compare the academic performance of the top and bottom fitness groups for each test. RESULTS: All fitness variables except body mass index (BMI) showed significant, positive associations with academic performance after adjustment for socio‐demographic covariates, with standardized mean difference effect sizes ranging from .07 to .34. Cardiovascular fitness showed the largest interquintile difference in TAKS score (32–75 points), followed by curl‐ups. Additional adjustment for BMI and curl‐ups showed dose‐response associations between cardiovascular fitness and academic scores (p < .001 for both genders and outcomes). Analysis of BMI demonstrated limited, nonlinear association with academic performance after socio‐demographic and fitness adjustments. CONCLUSIONS: Fitness was strongly and significantly related to academic performance. Cardiovascular fitness showed a dose‐response association with academic performance independent of other socio‐demographic and fitness variables. The association appears to peak in late middle to early high school. We recommend that policymakers consider physical education (PE) mandates in middle high school, school administrators consider increasing PE time, and PE practitioners emphasize cardiovascular fitness.     

Effect of Cardiorespiratory Fitness on Academic Achievement is Stronger in High‐SES Elementary Schools Compared to Low

BACKGROUND

Academic achievement is influenced by factors at the student, school, and community levels. We estimated the effect of cardiorespiratory fitness performance on academic performance at the school level in Georgia elementary schools and examined effect modification by sociodemographic factors.

METHODS

This study is a repeat cross‐sectional analysis of Georgia elementary schools between 2011 and 2014 (approximately 1138 schools per year). Multivariable beta regression estimated the effect of the proportion of 4th and 5th graders meeting cardiorespiratory fitness standards on the proportion of 5th graders passing standardized tests for Reading, English and Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies and considered potential interaction by school‐level socioeconomic status (SES), racial composition, and urbanity.

RESULTS

There was a 0.15 higher estimated odds (OR: 1.15 (1.09, 1.22)) of passing the mathematics standardized test for every 10‐percentage‐point increase in school‐level cardiorespiratory fitness among high‐SES schools and 0.04 higher odds (OR: 1.04 (1.02, 1.05)) for low‐SES schools. This pattern was similar for other academic subjects. No effect modification by racial composition or urbanity was observed for any academic subject.

CONCLUSIONS

Promoting physical fitness may be effective in improving academic performance among high‐SES schools, but additional strategies may be needed among lower‐SES schools.

     

The influence of maternal employment on children's learning growth and the role of parental involvement

Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, this study employed a latent growth curve model to examine how parental involvement explains the association between maternal employment status and children's math and reading achievement growth from kindergarten through the third grade. To address this issue, three types of parental involvement – school participation, parent–child interaction, and educational trips – were considered. Our findings indicated that maternal employment can be both beneficial and detrimental to children's educational development depending on the mother's number of working hours. Students whose mothers were employed part time exhibited an advantage in academic learning because of increased rates of school participation and parent–child interaction, whereas students of mothers employed full time appeared to experience a lower learning growth, given lower rate of school participation and fewer educational trips than students of unemployed mothers. These findings highlight the importance of family context in understanding work–family relationships.     

Longitudinal Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness and Academic Achievement Among Schoolchildren

BACKGROUND

Research is emerging suggesting that fitness not only improves health, but enhances academic achievement in children. Many studies have found the strongest correlation with academic achievement to be aerobic fitness. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of aerobic fitness and academic ranking on the association between improvements in students' aerobic fitness and their academic achievement.

METHODS

Data were collected from 1152 second‐ through fifth‐grade students enrolled in 10 Midwestern schools. School‐fixed effects models were used to estimate the impact of improved aerobic fitness from the fall to the spring semester on students' spring percentile rankings in math and reading.

RESULTS

Students whose progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run improved from the fall to spring semester moved up the national spring math percentile rankings by 2.71 percentiles (p < .001) for all students, 4.77 (p < .001) for less‐fit students, and 3.53 (p < .05) for lower performing math students. No statistically significant relationship was found between improved aerobic fitness and reading achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

Improving fitness could potentially have the greatest academic benefit for those elementary students who need it the most—the less fit and the lower academic performers.

     

Students' Perceived Parental School Behavior Expectations and Their Academic Performance: A Longitudinal Analysis

Self‐report data from 2,088 sixth‐grade students in 11 middle schools in North Carolina were combined with administrative data on their eighth‐grade end‐of‐the‐year achievement scores in math and reading to examine the influence of students' perceived parental school behavior expectations on their academic performance. Through use of multilevel modeling and control for the influence of students' demographics, trouble avoidance, and perceived support from adults and peers, we found that students' perceptions of their parents' expectations of their school behavior had a small but positive and statistically significant influence on their math and reading scores approximately 3 years later. Implications for the implementation of evidence‐based interventions in schools are discussed.     

A longitudinal examination of the link between youth physical fitness and academic achievement

BACKGROUND: Childhood obesity has been linked with other persistent health problems, but research is just beginning to examine its relationship with academic performance. This article tracks students longitudinally to examine the ways student physical fitness and changes in fitness align with school performance. METHODS: Using matched administrative data and individual growth modeling, we examine the relationship between academic achievement and overall physical fitness longitudinally from fourth to seventh and sixth to ninth grades for students in a California community. RESULTS: Comparing those who are persistently fit to those who are persistently unfit, we find disparities in both math and English language arts test scores. These academic disparities begin even before students begin fitness testing in fifth grade and are larger for girls and Latinos. Overall physical fitness is a better predictor of academic achievement than obesity as measured by body mass index. Socioeconomic status acts as a buffer for those who have poor physical fitness but strong academic performance. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate the presence of a physical fitness achievement gap that has consequences for potential students' future educational and health outcomes. This gap begins as early as fourth grade, which is before physical fitness testing begins in California.     

School‐Related Parental Involvement and Adolescent Academic Achievement: The Role of Community Poverty

Although most current studies have established the importance of school‐related parental involvement to adolescents' academic achievement, they are limited in that they do not address macrolevel community influences on such an association. This may be due in part to the lack of community‐level data or the use of inappropriate statistical strategies that cannot account for the influence of factors at the community level. To address this limitation, in this study, the authors examined the influence of community poverty on the association between school‐related parental involvement and adolescents' academic achievement. Using a large, nationally representative sample, results from a multilevel model suggested that, compared to adolescents living in more affluent communities, the positive effect of school‐related parental involvement on adolescents' academic achievement was significantly weaker for adolescents living in poor communities. Such findings suggested the importance of community poverty in influencing the effectiveness of school‐related parental involvement on adolescents' academic achievement.     

Impact of objective and subjective social status on obesity in a biracial cohort of adolescents

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the associations between socioeconomic status (SES), two levels of subjective social status (SSS), and adolescent obesity. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Cross-sectional study of 1491 black and white adolescents attending public school in a suburban school district in Greater Cincinnati, Ohio. BMI > or =95th percentile derived from measured height and weight defined overweight. Students rated SSS on separate 10-point scales for society and school. A parent provided information on parent education and household income for SES. RESULTS: Although there were no sex differences in SES, black students were more likely to come from families with less well-educated parents and lower incomes (p < 0.001). Black girls had the lowest societal SSS (p = 0.003), lowest school SSS (p = 0.046), and highest BMI (p < 0.001). Prevalence of overweight was highest among black girls (26.0%) and boys (26.2%), intermediate for white boys (17.2%), and least for white girls (11.6%). Logistic regression modeling revealed that parent education, household income, and school SSS were each associated with overweight. In a fully adjusted model, school SSS retained its association to overweight (odds ratio, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.06,1.26) independent of SES. The association of school SSS was strongest among white girls, intermediate for white and black boys, and absent for black girls. DISCUSSION: Perceptions of social stratification are independently associated with overweight. There were important racial and sex differences in the social status-overweight association. SSS in the more immediate, local reference group, the school, had the strongest association to overweight.