Measurement of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in education centers, health centers, transport facilities and leisure places

OBJECTIVES: To describe levels of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in various public places in Barcelona (Spain). MATERIAL AND METHOD: Vapor-phase nicotine was measured with passive samplers containing a sodium bisulfate treated filter with a 37 mm diameter. The places sampled were primary and secondary schools, hospitals, primary care centers, train stations, subways, universities, airports, restaurants and discotheques. RESULTS: Primary and secondary schools and health centers had the lowest levels of ETS exposure, with mean concentrations of less than 1 microg/m3. The mean values found in transport and universities were 2.16 microg/m3 in train stations, 3.30 microg/m3 in subways, 4.30 microg/m3 in airports and 4.97 microg/m3 in universities. The highest concentrations were found in restaurants and discotheques, with mean values of 12.36 microg/m3 in restaurants and 130.65 microg/m3 in discotheques. All samples taken from primary and secondary schools, airports, subways, restaurants and discotheques contained ETS. Likewise, 90% of the samples taken from train stations and 96% of those from universities contained ETS. Seventy-nine percent of the samples from hospitals and 58% of those from primary care centers contained ETS. CONCLUSIONS: The results confirm that passive smoking is an important public health problem in Spain and that greater efforts are needed to enforce smoke-free policies in public spaces and workplaces.     

Environmental tobacco smoke in Finnish restaurants and bars before and after smoking restrictions were introduced

OBJECTIVES: The Finnish Tobacco Act was amended on 1 March 2000 to include restrictions on smoking in restaurants and bars. To evaluate the effectiveness of the restrictions, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) concentrations in restaurants and bars were measured prior and after the amended Act entered into force. The Act was enforced in stages so that all stages were effective on 1 July 2003. According to the Act, smoking is prohibited in all Finnish restaurants and bars with certain exceptions. Smoking may be allowed in establishments where the service area is not larger than 50 m(2) if the exposure of employees working there to ETS can be prevented. On premises with larger service area, smoking may be allowed on 50% of the service area, provided tobacco smoke does not spread into the area where smoking is prohibited. At bar counters or gambling tables smoking is not allowed, if the spreading of tobacco smoke cannot be restricted to the employee side of the counter. Therefore, according to the Act all areas where smoking is prohibited are to be smoke-free. METHODS: Establishments with a serving area larger than 100 m(2) were selected for the present study. The evaluation both before and after the enforcement of the Act included the following: The ventilation rate was first measured in each establishment. Then 3-5 area samplers, depending on the layout, were placed in locations that best described the establishment and the working areas of the personnel. The measurements were performed twice at each establishment, during peak hours. The sample collection time was 4 h during which the guests and the cigarettes smoked were counted. The air samples were analysed for nicotine, 3-ethenylpyridine (3-EP) and total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) by thermodesorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Altogether 20 restaurants and bars situated in three Finnish cities participated in the study out of which 16 participated during all four measurement periods. None of the establishments had introduced a total ban on smoking and they all had reserved only the smallest area allowed by the Finnish Tobacco Act as the smoke-free area. The measured geometric mean (GM) nicotine concentration in all participating establishments was 7.1 microg m(-3) before the amended act was in force and 7.3 microg m(-3) after all stages of the Act had been enforced. The GM concentration of nicotine in food and dining restaurants was 0.7 microg m(-3) before and 0.6 microg m(-3) after the enforcement of the Act, in bars and taverns the concentrations were 10.6 and 12.7 microg m(-3), and in discos and night-clubs 15.2 and 8.1 microg m(-3), respectively. The GM nicotine concentrations measured in the smoke-free sections varied between 2.9 and 3 microg m(-3). 3-EP concentrations measured correlated well with the nicotine concentrations and were approximately one-fifth of the nicotine concentrations. The measurements showed higher TVOC values in the smoking sections than in the smoke-free sections, but because there are many other sources of TVOC compounds in restaurants and bars TVOC cannot be regarded as a marker for ETS. CONCLUSIONS: The overall air nicotine concentration decreased in 10 out of the 18 establishments that participated in the study both before and after all stages of the amended Act had been in force. Structural changes or changes to the ventilation systems had been carried out in nine of these establishments, i.e. the smoke-free sections were actually non-smoking and were mainly separated from other sections by signs and very little was done to keep the smoke from spreading into the smoke-free sections. In four establishments, the highest air nicotine concentration was measured in the smoke-free section. In 10 establishments, the air nicotine concentration at bar counters had dropped after the Act. Exposure of the workers and the public to ETS was, therefore, not reduced as intended by the Finnish legislature. Thus, it seems obvious from the present study that improving ventilation will not be a solution to restricting tobacco smoke from reaching smoke-free areas and physical barriers separating smoking from smoke-free areas are required.     

Nicotine and surface of particulates as indicators of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in public places in Austria

As part of a Europe-wide project the amount of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in public places like schools, restaurants, and public transport facilities was investigated. Three methods were applied: nicotine passive samplers (with a filter treated with sodium bisulphate), the same filters with an active sampling device, and the measurement of fine particles' active surface by unipolar diffusion charging. Settings were selected where either high or low ETS concentrations were expected and where non-smokers would have to stay or at least to pass by. Highest ETS concentrations were found in discos (mean nicotine concentration 154.4 maximum 487.1 microg/m3) and intermediate concentrations in restaurants with no significant difference between smoking (21.3 +/- 6.1 microg/m3) and non-smoking areas (23.3 +/- 15.9 microg/m3) but on average higher values in restaurants with no separation between smoking and non-smoking areas (38.0 +/- 60.6 microg/m3). Concentrations usually below 10 microg/m3 were found in transport facilities (8.9 +/- 8.0 microg/m3, maximum 20.6 in the restaurant section of a railway station's waiting room) and in schools (3.0 +/- 4.6 microg/m3). In hospitals "problem spots" were sought and so concentrations from very low to as high as 45.1 microg/m3 next to a smoking area with no physical barrier or separation and 47.7 microg/m3 inside a smoking room could be documented (21.4 +/- 39.3 microg/m3). The fine particle's surface correlated well with the nicotine concentration (r = 0.8; p < 0.001). Only in one instance (in a pizza restaurant on a busy road with heavy duty diesel traffic and the sampling spot next to the pizza stove) high concentration of fine particles was detected without high nicotine. Tobacco smoke is a key source of indoor fine particles. Health policy must intervene to change the situation found at present in many public places in Austria.     

Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in German restaurants, pubs and discotheques

In contrast to other countries, there is an on-going debate but still no smoke-free legislation in Germany. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in hospitality venues is assumed to be high, but air quality data are lacking. Therefore, the aim of our study was to perform a comprehensive exposure assessment by analysing the indoor air concentration of toxic or carcinogenic ETS compounds in restaurants, pubs, and discotheques. Active sampling of indoor air was conducted for 4 h during the main visiting hours in 28 hospitality venues. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), volatile organic compounds (VOC), aldehydes/ketones, and cadmium were analysed. In addition, particle mass concentration was assessed with two different methods and particle number concentration (PNC) was determined. Median nicotine levels were 15 microg/m(3) in restaurants, 31 microg/m(3) in pubs, and 193 microg/m(3) in discotheques. Across these three sampling site categories median levels of 3-ethenylpyridine ranged from 3 to 24 microg/m(3), median levels of benzene from 8 to 20 microg/m(3), median levels of cadmium from 3 to 10 ng/m(3), and median levels of the sum of 16 PAH according to US-EPA from 215 to 375 ng/m(3), respectively. Median PM(2.5) mass concentration assessed gravimetrically varied between 178 and 808 microg/m(3) and PNC between 120,000 and 210,000 particles per cm(3) in restaurants, pubs, and discotheques. The majority of the particles had a size of 0.01-0.5 microm. Concentrations of ETS compounds were always highest in discotheques. The strong correlation between ETS-specific markers (nicotine, 3-ethenylpyridine) and PM(2.5), PAH, VOC, aldehydes/ketones, and cadmium indicated ETS as main source of these toxic or carcinogenic substances. In conclusion, indoor air concentrations of ETS constituents were high in German hospitality venues and represented a substantial health threat. Effective measures to protect patrons and staff from ETS exposure are necessary from a public health point of view.     

Occupational exposure of non-smoking restaurant personnel to environmental tobacco smoke in Finland

BACKGROUND: Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure levels in different restaurant types in Finland were assessed before the National Tobacco Act restricting smoking in restaurants was activated. METHODS: Exposure to ETS was determined by measuring nicotine in the breathing zone of non-smoking restaurant workers and by quantification of the nicotine metabolites cotinine and 3-hydroxycotinine in the urine of these workers during one whole work week. Altogether 23 workers from 15 restaurants were included in the study. RESULTS: The geometric mean (GM) breathing-zone nicotine level was 3.9 microg/m(3) (3.7 microg/m(3) in pubs, 1.4 microg/m(3) in dining restaurants, and 10.2 microg/m(3) in nightclubs). The GM cotinine and trans-3'-hydroxycotinine level in urine were 3.3 ng/mg((creatinine)) and 15.3 ng/mg((creatinine)), respectively. The exposure to ETS of restaurant workers in dining restaurants was clearly lower than that of workers in pubs and nightclubs as indicated by all ETS-markers used in the present study. During the work week, the cotinine and 3'-hydroxycotinine levels in urine of the study subjects increased. The correlation between breathing zone nicotine and urine cotinine and hydroxycotinine was 0.66 for both compounds. Post-shift cotinine and hydroxycotinine levels were not significantly higher than the pre-shift levels. CONCLUSIONS: If 9 ng cotinine/mg((creatinine)) is considered as the level above which heavy exposure has occurred, then this level was exceeded by 14 (approximately 60%) subjects at least once during the work week. Nicotine metabolite concentrations in the urine increased during the work week in 80% of the subjects, and the increase was especially noticeable for subjects working in both pubs and nightclubs. The study indicates that measures to restrict ETS exposure in restaurants are needed.     

A study of environmental tobacco smoke in South Australian pubs, clubs and cafes

Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) in hotels and clubs is of community concern and may lead to a variety of adverse health outcomes for workers and patrons. This study sought to measure ETS in both smoking and non-smoking areas of hospitality venues in South Australia and to assess the effectiveness of ETS control measures. Seven hotels, clubs and cafes were investigated and the concentrations of airborne nicotine and particulate matter (PM(10)) were measured as markers of ETS exposure during normal to busy periods. Overall average concentrations were higher in smoking areas (nicotine = 15 microg/m(3) and PM(10) = 255microg/m(3)) compared with non-smoking dining areas (nicotine = 7 microg/m(3) and PM(10) = 192 microg/m(3)). The data demonstrate an approximate two-fold reduction of ETS within non-smoking areas and suggest that mechanical ventilation is only partially effective in preventing propagation of ETS throughout premises. Risk models suggest that ETS exposures in non-smoking areas may still represent an appreciable health risk. It is recommended that smoking be totally banned in enclosed publicly accessible areas.     

北京市部分餐厅和酒吧烟草烟雾及影响因素调查

目的了解北京市餐厅采取控烟措施的现况和实行禁烟措施对减少室内烟草烟雾浓度的效果。方法电话调查部分餐厅和酒吧采取的各种禁烟措施情况，采用AM510型个人智能防爆粉尘检测仪对室内外细颗粒物PM2.5的浓度进行检测，分析不同禁烟措施和不同类别餐厅烟草烟雾浓度以及室内外细颗粒物浓度差是否存在差异。结果在抽取调查92家的餐厅、酒吧中，采取完全禁烟和部分禁烟措施的占27．9％。92家的室内细颗粒物平均浓度达到253．08μg/m^3，比室外的高102．37％；有禁烟规定的餐厅和酒吧室内外细颗粒物浓度分别是93．10μg/m^3和110．33μg/m^3，无禁烟规定的餐厅、酒吧室内外细颗粒物浓度分别是289．34μg/m^3和128．40μg/m^3，不同类型餐厅、酒吧室内外细颗粒物浓度分别是413．46μg/m^3和190．62μg/m^3，西式快餐厅室内外细颗粒物浓度分别是8386μg/m^3和104．77μg/m^3，不同档次的餐厅中，室外细颗粒物浓度均比室内低。所调查餐厅、酒吧的室内细颗粒物浓度与单位体积吸烟人数呈显著正相关。结论餐厅内采取禁烟措施能有效减少环境烟草烟雾污染。     

Measurement of environmental tobacco smoke exposure among adults with asthma

Because the morbidity and mortality from adult asthma have been increasing, the identification of modifiable environmental exposures that exacerbate asthma has become a priority. Limited evidence suggests that exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) may adversely affect adults with asthma. To study the effects of ETS better, we developed a survey instrument to measure ETS exposure in a cohort of adults with asthma living in northern California, where public indoor smoking is limited. To validate this survey instrument, we used a passive badge monitor that measures actual exposure to ambient nicotine, a direct and specific measure of ETS. In this validation study, we recruited 50 subjects from an ongoing longitudinal asthma cohort study who had a positive screening question for ETS exposure or potential exposure. Each subject wore a passive nicotine badge monitor for 7 days. After the personal monitoring period, we readministered the ETS exposure survey instrument. Based on the survey, self-reported total ETS exposure duration ranged from 0 to 70 hr during the previous 7 days. Based on the upper-range boundary, bars or nightclubs (55 hr) and the home (50 hr) were the sites associated with greatest maximal self-reported exposure. As measured by the personal nicotine badge monitors, the overall median 7-day nicotine concentration was 0.03 microg/m(3) (25th-75th interquartile range 0-3.69 microg/m(3)). Measured nicotine concentrations were highest among persons who reported home exposure (median 0.61 microg/m(3)), followed by work exposure (0.03 microg/m(3)), other (outdoor) exposure (0.025 microg/m(3)), and no exposure (0 microg/m(3); p = 0.03). The Spearman rank correlation coefficient between self-reported ETS exposure duration and directly measured personal nicotine concentration during the same 7-day period was 0.47, supporting the survey's validity (p = 0.0006). Compared to persons with no measured exposure, lower-level [odds ratio (OR) 1.9; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.4-8.8] and higher-level ETS exposures (OR 6.8; 95% CI, 1.4-32.3) were associated with increased risk of respiratory symptoms. A brief, validated survey instrument can be used to assess ETS exposure among adults with asthma, even with low levels of exposure. This instrument could be a valuable tool for studying the effect of ETS exposure on adult asthma health outcomes.     

Determination of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in restaurant and tavern workers in one US city

Approximately 173 subjects employed as waiters, waitresses, or bartenders in the Knoxville, TN, Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area collected a sample of air from their breathing zone while at their workplace for one shift. In addition, area samples were placed near the work spaces of many of the subjects. Collected samples were analyzed for respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM), ultraviolet-absorbing and fluorescing particulate matter, solanesol, 3-ethenyl pyridine (3-EP), and nicotine. Saliva samples were collected from the subjects prior to and within 24 h following their work shift, to confirm their non-smoking status. The range of concentrations of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) constituents encountered was considerable, e.g., for nicotine, from undetectable to more than 100 microg/m3. However, the highest RSP levels observed were considerably lower than OSHA workplace standards. Distributions of ETS concentrations suggest that there are two "ETS exposure" types of bartenders: those that work in single room bars and those that work in larger, multiroom restaurant/bars. Personal exposure to ETS of the former group was ca. 10x greater than those of the latter group, who were exposed to ETS levels more comparable to those encountered by wait staff. Exposure (concentration x duration) differences between wait staff and workers in other types of unrestricted smoking environments reported in other studies suggest that exposures in the restaurant environment may be more difficult to assess than originally considered. Salivary cotinine levels indicated that for those subjects living in smoking homes, ETS exposures outside the workplace are at least as important as those in the workplace.     

Air Nicotine Levels in Public Places in Ahmedabad,India: Before and After Implementation of the Smoking Ban

Aim:

To compare air nicotine levels in public places in Ahmedabad, India, before (June 2008) and after (January, 2010) the implementation of a comprehensive smoking ban which was introduced in October 2008.

Materials and Methods:

Air nicotine concentrations were measured by sampling of vapor-phase nicotine using passive monitors. In 2008 (baseline), monitors were placed for 5-7 working days in 5 hospitals, 10 restaurants, 5 schools, 5 government buildings, and 10 entertainment venues, of which 6 were hookah bars. In 2010 (follow-up), monitors were placed in 35 similar venues for the same duration.

Results:

Comparison of the overall median nicotine concentration at baseline (2008) (0.06 μg/m³ Interquartile range (IQR): 0.02-0.22) to that of follow-up (2010) (0.03 μg/m³ IQR: 0.00-0.13), reflects a significant decline (% decline = 39.7, P = 0.012) in exposure to second-hand smoke (SHS). The percent change in exposure varied by venue-type. The most significant decrease occurred in hospitals, from 0.04 μg/m³ at baseline to concentrations under the limit of detection at follow-up (%decline = 100, P < 0.001). In entertainment venues, government offices, and restaurants, decreases in SHS exposure also appeared evident. However, in hookah bars, air nicotine levels appeared to increase (P = 0.160).

Conclusion:

Overall, SHS exposure was significantly reduced in public places after the smoke-free legislation came into force. However, nicotine concentrations were still detected in most of the venues indicating imperfect compliance with the comprehensive ban.     

Smoking and exposure to tobacco smoke at medium-sized and large-scale workplaces

BACKGROUND: The objective of the present study was to assess the smoking prevalence of workers, the attitudes toward smoking, and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in different work environments. METHODS: A questionnaire survey and indoor air quality (IAQ) measurements including the concentration of gaseous nicotine in indoor air were performed in 10 medium-sized and large-scale workplaces representing industrial, service, and office environments. The questionnaire was distributed to all workers (n=1471) in 10 workplaces. IAQ measurements were performed in 4-7 locations in each workplace. RESULTS: Altogether 1027 (70%) employees, of whom 31% were women, responded to the questionnaire. Prevalence of daily smokers was 28.3% (32.3% for men and 22.9% for women). The prevalence was highest among workers in the service sector (32.7%) and lowest in offices (21.6%). Among smokers, 86% of men and 75% of women smoked inside the building. Exposures greater than one hour to ETS were highest in industry (66.3%) and lowest in services (42.6%). Non-smokers complained more often than the regular smokers about the spreading of tobacco smoke to non-smoking areas, and they felt that workplace smoking was a significant discomfort. Mean concentration of nicotine was highest in service environments (3.0 microg/m(3)) and lowest in offices (0.6 microg/m(3)). CONCLUSIONS: According to the present questionnaire survey and IAQ measurements, smoking habits and exposure to tobacco smoke varied considerably depending on the position of the employees and the type of the workplace.     

Evaluating the efficacy of different smoking policies in restaurants and bars in Beijing,China: A four-year follow-up study

Introduction

In 2006, the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control became effective in mainland China. In 2007, advocacy on voluntary smoking bans in restaurants was initiated in Beijing, and in 2008 the Beijing government implemented a smoking regulation, requiring big restaurants to prohibit or restrict smoking.

Objectives

To evaluate the efficacy of different smoking policies adopted by Beijing restaurants and bars from 2006 to 2010.

Methods

The study conducted field observations of patron smoking behavior and monitored fine particulate matter from secondhand smoke (SHS PM) from 91, 85, 94 and 79 Beijing restaurants and bars in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2010, respectively, during peak-patronage times, with overlaps of venues during each two years. Area nicotine sampling during peak patronage times and servers’ personal nicotine sampling during their working shifts were also conducted in 2010.

Results

Smoking was nominally prohibited or restricted in 18% of restaurants and bars monitored in 2006, in 11% of venues in 2007, in 83% of venues in 2008, and in 69% of venues in 2010. However, smoking was observed in more than 40% of the nominal nonsmoking venues/sections in 2008 and 2010. The median of observed patron active smoker density (ASD) was 0.24, 0.27, 0.00 and 0.10 active smokers per 100 m³ in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2010, respectively. The median of SHS PM concentrations was 53, 83, 18 and 27 μg/m³, respectively. In 2010, both the median SHS PM and air nicotine concentrations in designated nonsmoking sections were about 40% of those in designated smoking sections, according to simultaneous sampling in both sections. Servers’ personal exposure to air nicotine was quite similar in venues with different nominal smoking policies. In the 15 venues followed from 2006 to 2010, SHS PM concentrations changed randomly from 2006 to 2007, decreased in most venues in 2008, and then increased to some extent in 2010.

Conclusion

Voluntary smoking policy is rarely adopted and cannot protect people from SHS exposure in restaurants and bars. The 2008 Beijing governmental smoking regulation failed to significantly reduce SHS exposure shortly or two years after its implementation. Restricting smoking to designated sections cannot eliminate SHS exposure.     

Environmental tobacco smoke exposure patterns: a subanalysis of the Canadian Human Time-Activity Pattern Survey.

This subanalysis of the Canadian Human Activity Pattern Survey examines environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure in non-smoking respondents relative to age, sex, socioeconomic status and prevalence of asthma. 2,381 respondents (response rate 64.5%) from Toronto, Vancouver, Edmonton and Saint John completed a 24-hour recall time-activity diary. For each activity and location, respondents were asked, "was there any smoking during the activity?" Among non-smoking adults, youth, children and asthmatics, the rates of ETS exposure were 32%, 34%, 30% and 42% respectively. Regarding the location of exposure, adults reported ETS exposure in various locations (work, bars and restaurants), including home. Children experienced the most exposure at home, primarily between 4 p.m. and midnight. Adults reported ETS mainly in the living room (16%) and vehicles (13%); for children, the living room (22%) and the bedroom (13%) were the most common locations. Determining characteristic time and location patterns for ETS exposure underpins educational strategies to help non-smokers avoid ETS exposure.     

上海部分餐馆室内空气PM2.5浓度监测及禁烟措施调查

目的了解上海餐厅禁烟措施的实施情况,分析不同禁烟规定对减少餐厅就餐区烟草烟雾浓度的效果。方法电话调查餐厅的控烟类型,现场观察禁烟措施的落实情况,并采用AM510型个人智能防爆粉尘检测仪对餐厅室外、非吸烟区、吸烟区细颗粒物PM2.5的浓度进行检测,分析餐厅内3类监测点之间、不同禁烟规定的餐厅之间的烟草烟雾浓度差异。结果电话调查100家餐厅中,21家不禁烟,48家部分禁烟,27家完全禁烟。排除室外PM2.5浓度的影响,完全禁烟餐厅的非吸烟区PM2.5浓度(56.83μg/m3)低于部分禁烟餐厅(66.46μg/m3,F=5.424,P<0.05);部分禁烟餐厅中,非吸烟区PM2.5浓度(84.90μg/m3)低于吸烟区(130.67μg/m3,t=-3.154,P<0.01),吸烟区PM2.5浓度低于不禁烟餐厅(t=2.386,P<0.05)。结论餐厅控烟法规执行有待加强,餐厅分区能在一定程度上减少非吸烟区受吸烟区烟草烟雾的影响,但其效果明显小于完全禁烟,餐厅采取完全禁烟措施非常必要。     

Environmental tobacco smoke in an unrestricted smoking workplace: area and personal exposure monitoring.

The objective of this investigation was to determine the extent of areal and day-to-day variability of stationary environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) concentrations in a single large facility where smoking was both prevalent and unrestricted, and to determine the degree of daily variation in the personal exposure levels of ETS constituents in the same facility. The subject facility was a relatively new four-story office building with an approximate volume of 1.3 million ft3. The exchange of outside air in the building was determined to be between 0.6 and 0.7 air changes per hour. Eighty-seven area samples (excluding background) were collected at 29 locations over the course of 6 days of sampling. Locations included offices and cubicles occupied by smokers and nonsmokers, common areas, and the computer and mail rooms. Twenty-four nonsmoking subjects wore personal sampling systems to collect breathing zone air samples on each of 3 days in succession. This generated a total of seventy-two 8-h time-weighted average (TWA) personal exposure samples. In all samples, respirable suspended particulate matter, ultraviolet light-absorbing and fluorescing particulate matter, solanesol, nicotine, and 3-ethenyl pyridine were determined. With the exception of a few locations, tobacco-specific airborne constituents were determined in all samples. Not surprisingly, areas with the highest ETS constituent concentrations were offices and cubicles of smokers. Median and 95th percentile concentrations for all area samples, excluding background, were determined to be 1.5 and 8.7 microg/m3 for nicotine, and 8.2 and 59 microg/m3 for ETS-specific particles (as solanesol-related particulate matter, Sol-PM), respectively. Personal exposure concentrations of ETS components were similar to those levels found in the area samples (median nicotine and Sol-PM concentrations were 1.24 and 7.1 microg/m3, respectively), but the range of concentrations was somewhat smaller. For example, the 95th percentile 8-h TWA nicotine and ETS-specific particle (as Sol-PM) concentrations were 3.58 and 21.9 microg/m3, respectively. Intrasubject variation of daily concentrations ranged from 20% to 60%, depending on the component. Self-reported proximity to smokers was supported by higher ETS concentrations determined from the personal monitors, but only to a modest extent. Although smoking was completely unrestricted inside the main office areas of the facility, ETS levels, either areal or from personal exposure measurements, were lower than those estimated by Occupational Safety and Health Administration to be present in such facilities.     

Relationship between environmental tobacco smoke and urinary cotinine levels in passive smokers at their residence

Studies of the health effects of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) using measured air concentrations are subject to bias. Cotinine, a nicotine metabolite detected in urine, has been recommended as a quantitative measure of nicotine intake and thus as a marker for ETS exposure in humans. The aim of this study was to correlate home indoor ETS levels with passive smokers' urinary cotinine levels. The urinary cotinine concentrations of 57 non-smoking women who spend >19 h a day at home and the nicotine levels in their living room air were measured over a period of 24 h. Nicotine and urinary cotinine levels were analyzed using GC/MS and HPLC/UV, respectively. In addition, information was collected regarding the smoking habits of the subjects' families. A significant correlation was found between the nicotine levels in indoor air and the urinary cotinine to creatinine ratio of the passive smokers. The smoking habits of the subjects' family members were also correlated to the urinary cotinine levels of the passive smokers.     

Inmate exposure to secondhand smoke in correctional facilities and the impact of smoking restrictions

This study was undertaken to measure the passive smoking exposure of prisoners at three correctional facilities in the US and to evaluate the effectiveness of a ban on smoking in reducing these exposures at two of these facilities. The average weekly concentration of nicotine was measured in fixed locations within the correctional facilities using passive samplers. Samples were collected before and after a smoking ban was instituted, and after the policy was modified to allow smoking outdoors. Samples were collected in the living areas, near where inmates slept and watched TV, and in selected central facilities, including dining halls, visiting rooms, booking areas, and learning centers. Average weekly concentrations of nicotine were measured in 84 locations while smoking was allowed; changes in these concentrations were measured with 112 weekly samples 4 and 9 months after the policy restricting smoking was implemented The average concentrations of nicotine were high while smoking was allowed: most living and sleeping areas averaged 3-11 microg/m(3), but the gym that was used as a bunkroom averaged 25 microg/m(3); these values compare to an average of 2 microg/m(3) in the homes of smokers. The smoking ban significantly reduced nicotine concentrations in the living areas (P<0.01 at facility A and P<0.05 at facility B) to averages of 1.5-2.2 microg/m(3); all postban samples were less than 5 microg/m(3). In conclusion, secondhand smoke concentrations in correctional facilities can be quite high; however, policies banning smoking are effective in reducing, but not eliminating, these exposures.     

Second-hand smoke levels in UK pubs and bars: do the English Public Health White Paper proposals go far enough?

BACKGROUND: The English Public Health White Paper proposes introducing smoke-free workplaces except in pubs and bars that do not prepare and serve food. The bar area will be non-smoking in exempted pubs. OBJECTIVE: To explore the likely impact of these proposals in UK pubs and bars. METHODS: A total of 59 pubs and bars within Greater Manchester in 2001 were chosen. Thirteen were mechanically ventilated, 12 were naturally ventilated and 34 had extractor fans; 23 provided non-smoking areas. We measured time-weighted average concentrations of respirable suspended particles (RSP), solanesol tobacco-specific particles and vapour-phase nicotine (VPN) over a 4-h sampling period on a Tuesday or Saturday night. RESULTS: Second-hand smoke (SHS) levels in smoking areas were high (mean RSP 114.5 microg/m3, VPN 88.2 microg/m3, solanesol 101.7 microg/m3). There were only small (5-13 per cent) reductions in bar areas. Mean levels were lower in non-smoking areas: by 33 per cent for RSPs, 52 per cent for solanesol particles and 69 per cent for VPN. Compared with other settings (homes and other workplaces) with unrestricted smoking, mean SHS levels were high throughout all areas of the pubs regardless of ventilation strategy. CONCLUSION: Partial measures, like those in the English Public Health White Paper, will leave bar staff in exempted pubs unprotected from the occupational hazard of SHS.     

Air Nicotine Monitoring for Second Hand Smoke Exposure in Public Places in India

Background:

Air nicotine monitoring is an established method of measuring exposure to second hand smoke (SHS). Not much research has been done in India to measure air nicotine for the purpose of studying exposure to SHS. It is a risk factor and many diseases are known to occur among non smokers if they are exposed to second hand smoke.

Objective:

To conduct monitoring of air nicotine for second hand smoke exposure in public places across major cities in India.

Materials and Methods:

A cross sectional survey was conducted across four cities across the country, using passive air monitoring. The buildings included hospitals, secondary schools, Governmental offices, bars and restaurants. The buildings were selected through convenience sampling method keeping in view specific sentinel locations of interest.

Result:

The presence of air nicotine was recorded in most of the buildings under the study, which included government buildings, hospitals, schools, restaurants and entertainment venues (bars) in all four cities under the study. The highest median levels of air nicotine were found in entertainment venues and restaurants in cities.

Conclusion:

The presence of air nicotine in indoor public places indicates weak implementation of existing smoke free law in India. The findings of this study provide a baseline characterization of exposure to SHS in public places in India, which could be used to promote clean indoor air policies and programs and monitor and evaluate the progress and future smoke-free initiatives in India.     

Indoor air pollution caused by cigarette smoke in public places in Portugal

OBJECTIVE: There have been few studies investigating the level of cigarette smoke pollution to which people in several public and private places are exposed. The purpose of this study was to quantify the level of air pollution produced by cigarette smoking in workplaces and leisure settings. METHODS: The study was carried out in Braga, Portugal, in 2005. Nicotine content in indoor air was measured using passive monitors containing a 37-mm diameter filter inside treated with sodium bisulphate. The monitors were installed in predefined public workplaces and leisure settings. Median nicotine content was estimated for each place studied. RESULTS: Nicotine was detected in 85% of the samples. Extremely high air contamination levels were found in discos with a median of 82.26 microg/m3, ranging between 5.79 and 106.31 microg/m3. Workplaces of public administration and university buildings showed the lowest nicotine content. CONCLUSIONS: The study findings confirm the need to promote the implementation of smoke-free policies in workplaces and leisure settings to protect workers' health and as a reinforcing measure of an environment which facilitates smokers to quit smoking.