Access to health care, reproductive health and disability: a large scale survey in Sierra Leone

This is the first study to compare health status and access to health care services between disabled and non-disabled men and women in urban and peri-urban areas of Sierra Leone. It pays particular attention to access to reproductive health care services and maternal health care for disabled women. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2009 in 5 districts of Sierra Leone, randomly selecting 17 clusters for a total sample of 425 households. All adults who were identified as being disabled, as well as a control group of randomly selected non-disabled adults, were interviewed about health and reproductive health. As expected, we showed that people with severe disabilities had less access to public health care services than non-disabled people after adjustment for other socioeconomic characteristics (bivariate modelling). However, there were no significant differences in reporting use of contraception between disabled and non-disabled people; contrary to expectations, women with disabilities were as likely to report access to maternal health care services as did non-disabled women. Rather than disability, it is socioeconomic inequality that governs access to such services. We also found that disabled women were as likely as non-disabled women to report having children and to desiring another child: they are not only sexually active, but also need access to reproductive health services. We conclude that disparity in access to government-supported health care facilities constitutes a major and persisting health inequity between persons with and without disabilities in Sierra Leone. Ensuring equal access will require further strengthening of the country's health care system. Furthermore, because the morbidity and mortality rates of pregnant women are persistently high in Sierra Leone, assessing the quality of services received is an important priority for future research.     

Access to health care in an age of austerity: disabled people’s unmet needs in Greece

Since late 2009, Greece has been dealing with the effects of a debt crisis. The neoliberal principles embedded in the three structural adjustment programmes that the country accepted have required radical cuts in health care funding, which in turn have led to widening inequalities in health. This article focuses on access to health care for people with disabilities in Greece in the context of these structural adjustments. We investigate possible differences in unmet health care needs between people with and without disabilities, using de-identified cross-sectional data from the European Health Interview Survey. The sample included 5400 community-dwelling men and women aged 15 years and over. The results of the logistic regressions showed that people with disabilities report higher unmet health care needs, with cost, transportation, and long waiting lists being significant barriers; experience of all barriers was positively associated with low socio-economic status. These findings suggest that a section of the population who may have higher health care needs face greater barriers in accessing services. Austerity policies impact on access to health care in both direct and indirect ways, producing long-term disadvantage for disabled people. Social policies and comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation might help to address some of the barriers this population faces.     

COVID-19 disproportionately impacts access to basic needs among households with disabled members

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted disabled people, especially those who are members of marginalized communities that were already denied access to the resources and opportunities necessary to ensure health equity before the pandemic.ObjectiveCompare COVID-19 impact on basic needs access among households with and without disabled adults.MethodsAn online survey was distributed to households with children enrolled in one of 30 socially vulnerable elementary or middle schools in San Diego County, California. We measured disability using the single-item Global Activities Limitations Indicator. We measured pandemic impacts on basic needs access using the RADx-UP common data elements toolkit. We then assessed number of impact items reported by household disability using multivariable linear regression, adjusting for household income, household size, education, parent gender, and child's ethnicity.ResultsOf 304 participants, 41% had at least one disabled household member. Participants reporting a disabled household member were more likely to report challenges accessing basic needs, such as food, housing, healthcare, transportation, medication, and stable income during the pandemic (all p < 0.05). Difficulty accessing basic needs was significantly associated with household income and parent gender in the final regression model.ConclusionsHouseholds with a disabled member were significantly more likely to experience difficulty accessing basic needs during the COVID-19 pandemic. This has important implications for the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on disabled people, especially those from low-income communities that already face barriers to accessing resources. To improve COVID-19 outcomes for disabled people, we must focus on meeting their basic needs.     

Disparities in physical access and healthcare utilization among adults with and without disabilities in South Africa

Background

In South Africa barriers to accessing health services by persons with a disability would appear to be exacerbated by the overburdened state of public healthcare.

Improving health care for disabled people in COVID-19 and beyond: Lessons from Australia and England

COVID-19 has exacerbated pre-existing difficulties children and adults with disability face accessing quality health care. Some people with disability are at greater risk of contracting COVID-19 because they require support for personal care and are unable to physically distance, e.g. those living in congregate settings. Additionally, some people with disability have health conditions that put them at higher risk of poor outcomes if they become infected. Despite this, governments have been slow to recognise, and respond to, the unique and diverse health care needs of people with disability during COVID-19. While some countries, including Australia, have improved access to high-quality health care for people with disability others, like England, have failed to support their citizens with disability. In this Commentary we describe the health care responses of England and Australia and make recommendations for rapidly improving health care for people with disability in the pandemic and beyond.     

The telehealth divide: disparities in searching public health information online

This article explores e government inequalities to searching Medicare and Medicaid information online. Telehealth, a branch of e government, can bring public health service and insurance information to the citizen. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services website, among others, has critical information for potential beneficiaries and recipients of services. Using Pew survey data and multivariate regression analysis we find people in most need of Medicare and Medicaid information online (the elderly and poor) are accessing it, and people with years of online experience are strong proponents of online searches. Despite being less likely to have broadband services, individuals in rural areas were not found to be less likely to search for information online. In conclusion, some disparities are narrowing as the elderly and poor in need of access to public health insurance are searching for it online. However, people without Internet access and experience (perhaps the oldest and poorest) remain disadvantaged with respect to accessing critical information that can link them to needed health care services.     

An analysis of perceived access to health care in Europe: How universal is universal coverage?

The objective of this paper is to examine variations in perceptions of access to health care across and within 29 European countries. Using data from the 2008 round of the European Social Survey, we investigate the likelihood of an individual perceiving that they will experience difficulties accessing health care in the next 12 months, should they need it (N = 51,835). We find that despite most European countries having mandates for universal health coverage, individuals who are low income, in poor health, lack citizenship in the country where they reside, 20–30 years old, unemployed and/or female have systematically greater odds of feeling unable to access care. Focusing on the role of income, we find that while there is a strong association between low income and perceived access barriers across countries, within many countries, perceptions of difficulties accessing care are not concentrated uniquely among low-income groups. This implies that factors that affect all income groups, such as poor quality care and long waiting times may serve as important barriers to access in these countries. Despite commitments to move towards universal health coverage in Europe, our results suggest that there is still significant heterogeneity among individuals’ perceptions of access and important barriers to accessing health care.     

Children of working poor families in California: the effects of insurance status on access and utilization of primary health care

We examined the effects of health insurance on access and utilization of health care among children of working poor families. These children experience strong access barriers yet have not been studied systematically. 1,492 children in California under 19 years old who had workforce participating parents and a subset of full-time year round working families earning below 200% of poverty were examined from the 1994 National Health Interview Survey. Thirty-two percent of children of working poor families were uninsured in California compared with 26% nationwide. Difficulties in accessing a regular care source and obtaining after-hour care were markedly higher in California. Full-time year round work did not increase insurance coverage and worsened access to a regular source of care. Uninsured children in California were far more likely than insured children to face access barriers and less likely to see a physician in the previous year. Between privately and publicly insured children, the gap in access and utilization narrowed markedly. Health insurance is critical for children in working poor families. Healthy Families, California's response to CHIP, could improve coverage for this population.     

Insurance + access not equal to health care: typology of barriers to health care access for low-income families

PURPOSE Public health insurance programs have expanded coverage for the poor, and family physicians provide essential services to these vulnerable populations. Despite these efforts, many Americans do not have access to basic medical care. This study was designed to identify barriers faced by low-income parents when accessing health care for their children and how insurance status affects their reporting of these barriers.     

The National Mental Health Plan in Chile: 10 years of experience]

Dealing with mental health problems is undoubtedly an increasingly important public health responsibility around the world. In Chile, because of the changes in the epidemiological profile of the population, the lifetime prevalence of mental and behavioral disorders has reached 36%. In response, the Ministry of Health of Chile, through its Mental Health Unit, prepared the National Plan for Mental Health and Psychiatry. The Plan establishes objectives, strategies, and steps to improve the well-being and mental health of Chileans. This piece describes the model of care for mental health and psychiatry used in Chile's public health care system, analyzes the main difficulties encountered and the achievements made in the 10 years that the Plan has been in place, and makes recommendations for improving the Plan. Over the 10-year period, the new model for mental health and psychiatry has managed to make a place for itself in the public health care system. Indicators show that the beneficiaries of the public health care system in Chile now have greater access to mental health services than before the new model of community care was established, have broader health care coverage, and receive better quality services.     

Hospitalisation among the elderly in urban China

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine the trend of hospitalisation amongst the elderly in urban China and analyse the main socio-economic factors which are affecting the use of inpatient care. METHODS: Data from the Chinese national household health interview surveys conducted in 1993, 1998 and 2003 were analysed. The following variables were selected: gender, health insurance coverage and household income. RESULTS: Elderly people with insurance are more likely to use inpatient services than those who were not insured. Elderly people in the low income group are less likely than ones in the high income group to use inpatient services. Non-hospitalisation is more common amongst elderly women than elderly men and amongst the non-insured. The likelihood of elderly people in the low income groups not using inpatient services has increased dramatically from 12% in 1993 to 134% in 2003. Financial difficulty appeared to be the most common reason for not accessing inpatient care, particularly for elderly people without health insurance. CONCLUSIONS: Elderly people with low income, without health insurance, and women appear to be more vulnerable in their access to inpatient care. Appropriate policies could be developed to protect these groups of people from high health care expenses.     

Disparities in health care access for women with disabilities in the United States from the 2006 National Health Interview Survey

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to determine the relationship between disability, gender and access to health care, especially for women with disabilities compared to women without disabilities and men with disabilities.MethodsData from the 2006 NHIS were examined using chi square, linear regression, and logistic analysis to determine the relationship between health care access, severity of disability, and gender. Responses regarding functional limitations from adults aged 18 and over or their proxies were used to determine placement for analysis. The dependent variable was access to health care. The independent variables were disability and gender.ResultsWomen with disabilities had less access to health care than women without disabilities and men with disabilities. Disability and gender were predictive of lack of access to health care. Those who are disabled are 2.26 to 3.78 times more likely to not to have access to health care, and women were 1.26 times more likely not to have access to health care.ConclusionHealth care professionals should advocate for more parity in health care access, removal of barriers and policies to provide needed funding for health care.     

Financing mental health services in low- and middle-income countries

Mental disorders account for a significant and growing proportion of the global burden of disease and yet remain a low priority for public financing in health systems globally. In many low-income countries, formal mental health services are paid for directly by patients out-of-pocket and in middle-income countries undergoing transition there has been a decline in coverage. The paper explores the impact of health care financing arrangements on the efficient and equitable utilization of mental health services. Through a review of the literature and a number of country case studies, the paper examines the impact of financing mental health services from out-of-pocket payments, private health insurance, social health insurance and taxation. The implications for the development of financing systems in low- and middle-income countries are discussed. International evidence suggests that charging patients for mental health services results in levels of use which are below socially efficient levels as the benefits of the services are distributed according to ability to pay, resulting in inequitable access to care. Private health insurance poses three main problems for mental health service users: exclusion of mental health benefits, limited access to those without employment and refusal to insure pre-existing conditions. Social health insurance may offer protection to those with mental health problems. However, in many low- and middle-income countries, eligibility is based on contributions and limited to those in formal employment (therefore excluding many with mental health problems). Tax-funded systems provide universal coverage in theory. However, the quality and distribution of publicly financed health care services makes access difficult in practice, particularly for rural poor communities.     

Hospitalisation among the elderly in urban China

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to examine the trend of hospitalisation amongst the elderly in urban China and analyse the main socio-economic factors which are affecting the use of inpatient care.MethodsData from the Chinese national household health interview surveys conducted in 1993, 1998 and 2003 were analysed. The following variables were selected: gender, health insurance coverage and household income.ResultsElderly people with insurance are more likely to use inpatient services than those who were not insured. Elderly people in the low income group are less likely than ones in the high income group to use inpatient services. Non-hospitalisation is more common amongst elderly women than elderly men and amongst the non-insured. The likelihood of elderly people in the low income groups not using inpatient services has increased dramatically from 12% in 1993 to 134% in 2003. Financial difficulty appeared to be the most common reason for not accessing inpatient care, particularly for elderly people without health insurance.ConclusionsElderly people with low income, without health insurance, and women appear to be more vulnerable in their access to inpatient care. Appropriate policies could be developed to protect these groups of people from high health care expenses.     

A review of the 'welfare state' and alternative ways of delivering health care.

There was no such thing as a public policy for quality health care in the inception of what we now address as the 'welfare state'. The main objectives of those supporting the idea, epitomized by the 'freedom from want' that Beveridge postulated in his now famous November 1942 Report on Social Insurance and Allied Services, was to extend the benefits of social insurance, that is access to services such as health care, to every individual. In the same fashion, post World War II initiatives in Latin America somewhat disregarded the intrinsic quality of health care services, provided they were distributed equally, at least among the urban people. Therefore, it is licit to ascertain that the main, albeit implicit, quality feature of health care was access, that is the ability to reach the entire population with the available services. The health care reform movement following the welfare state crisis, from the Jackson Hole group and Einthoven's managed competition in the United States to the internal markets proposals in different European countries, started when universal coverage had been achieved where it had been pursued, and disregarded elsewhere. In other words, access as a measure of health care quality was not the point. Instead, the subject of both academic research and administrative initiatives was the quality of the health services effectively provided to the population. Furthermore, the World Health Organization in its World Health Report 2000 explicitly excluded access as an item to be assessed in the process of evaluating health systems, although many countries had not achieved, nor were even near, universal coverage. Therefore, notwithstanding the relevance of the continuous quality improvement of the health services actually delivered to the people, access should always be the first quality concern to those health systems lacking universal coverage of the population they are supposed to serve.     

Transgender health in medical education

Transforming our world the 2030 agenda for sustainable development is working towards a world that reflects equity, with universal respect for human dignity, pledging to leave no one behind. However, transgender and gender-diverse individuals experience significant health inequities, including negative health outcomes and multiple barriers to accessing care. In this article, we first highlight the health inequities that transgender and gender-diverse people face globally. We describe important aspects of transgender and gender-diverse health care, including the design and provision of health services, epidemiological considerations, transition-related care, changes in transition-related goals, cultural considerations, and political and legal issues. We then review the existing global literature on incorporating transgender health into medical curricula. We make a case for prioritizing improved education in medical schools on the specific health needs of transgender and gender-diverse people as part of addressing global health inequities in care. Our recommendations for comprehensive education on transgender health include cultural humility and anti-oppression training; involvement of transgender and gender-diverse community members; integration of transgender and gender-diverse health into curricula; practice-focused and in situ training; staff development in medical schools; and improving access to careers in medicine for transgender and gender-diverse people.     

The importance of seasonal influenza vaccination for people with disabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic

A large proportion of Americans have at least one disability and yet people with disabilities face inequities in health and health care access. Factors associated with underlying disability and health, how they perceive and interact with the world, and where they live, or work may increase the risk people with disabilities face for illness or severe outcomes from seasonal influenza. Given the need to reduce the burden of respiratory illness on a healthcare system already overwhelmed by the COVID-19 pandemic, maximizing seasonal influenza vaccination coverage is particularly important in 2020–2021. It is critical this season to ensure equitable access to influenza vaccination for people with disabilities. Providing influenza vaccination services in the unique places where people with disabilities are living, working, or receiving care during the COVID-19 pandemic is crucial, as well as communicating effectively to people with different types of disabilities.     

Is Taiwan's National Health Insurance a perfect system? Problems related to health care utilization of the aboriginal population in rural townships

National Health Insurance (NHI) was implemented in Taiwan in 1995, and has significantly increased coverage to 99% of the population. The implementation of NHI has had large impacts on health disparities. Despite that, the NHI faces multiple challenges, including the condition of “coverage without access” among the Taiwanese aboriginal population, mostly residing in mountainous townships and experiencing lower socioeconomic status, decreased health outcomes, and limited access to adequate high‐quality health care services. This paper summarizes the persistent health gap and the differences in health care utilization and health outcomes between the aboriginal population in rural townships and urban populations in Taiwan. Mountainous townships face challenges including lack of access to high‐quality health care services and limited medical resources. Further policy recommendations and current progress are highlighted and discussed.     

Inequities in access to health care in South Africa

Achieving equitable universal health coverage requires the provision of accessible, necessary services for the entire population without imposing an unaffordable burden on individuals or households. In South Africa, little is known about access barriers to health care for the general population. We explore affordability, availability, and acceptability of services through a nationally representative household survey (n = 4668), covering utilization, health status, reasons for delaying care, perceptions and experiences of services, and health-care expenditure. Socio-economic status, race, insurance status, and urban-rural location were associated with access to care, with black Africans, poor, uninsured and rural respondents, experiencing greatest barriers. Understanding access barriers from the user perspective is important for expanding health-care coverage, both in South Africa and in other low- and middle-income countries.