Pharmacy Students' Perceptions of Their Preparedness to Provide Pharmaceutical Care

Objective

To assess students'' perceptions of their preparedness to perform advanced pharmacy practice competencies.

Design

The Preparedness to Provide Pharmaceutical Care (PREP) survey was modified and administered to each class at a Midwestern university from 2005-2008. Factor analysis and 1-way ANOVA with multiple comparisons were applied to assess the effectiveness of changes made in the pharmacy curriculum.

Assessment

Factor analysis yielded patterns similar to those reported in the literature. Students rated themselves highest on the psychological aspects and lowest on the administrative aspects of care. Perceived pharmaceutical care skills grew as students progressed through the curriculum, and changes in coursework were reflected in the competencies.

Conclusion

Students’ perceived competencies (ie, communication, psychological, technical, administrative) were similar to those at other institutions and perceptions of competencies increased in a manner consistent with actual program outcomes.     

Electronic Reflective Student Portfolios to Demonstrate Achievement of Ability-based Outcomes During Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objectives

To demonstrate achievement of ability-based outcomes through a structured review of electronic student portfolios in an advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) program.

Design

One hundred thirty-eight students produced electronic portfolios containing select work products from APPEs, including a self-assessment reflective essay that demonstrated achievement of course manual-specified ability-based outcomes.

Assessment

Through portfolio submissions, all students demonstrated the achievement of ability-based outcomes for providing pharmaceutical care, evaluating the literature, and managing the medication use system with patient case reports most frequently submitted. The rubric review of self-reflective essays addressed student learning through APPEs and continuing professional development plans.

Conclusion

The electronic portfolio with reflective essay proved to be a useful vehicle to demonstrate achievement of ability-based outcomes.     

Validation of a Survey Instrument to Evaluate Students' Learning During Community-based Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objective

To develop and validate a preceptor/student self-report survey instrument to distinguish between different advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) models based on pharmaceutical care competencies.

Methods

The survey instrument''s psychometric properties and differential impacts of 3 community-based APPE models were evaluated retrospectively.

Results

Five dimensions characterized APPE learning: importance of 14 pharmaceutical care competencies; agreement with pharmaceutical care procedures in practice; gains in perceived pharmaceutical care abilities; and learning climate and preceptor support. Most of the survey instrument scales detected student/preceptor differences as well as differences in APPE model structures. A streamlined, 30-item short form was validated against the full 78-item survey instrument.

Conclusions

This study confirms that APPE learning can be quantified to: (1) identify high-risk students, (2) train new or continuing preceptors, (3) promote skills-training for select pharmaceutical care competencies, (4) add clarity and structure to APPE learning objectives, and (5) provide students and preceptors with common frameworks for negotiating the APPE experience.     

Vital sign monitoring using human patient simulators at pharmacy schools in Japan

Objective

To develop, implement, and assess an experience-based education program using human patient simulators to instruct pharmacy students in monitoring vital signs to identify drug treatment effects and adverse events.

Design

Medical emergency care programs using human patient simulators were prepared and facilitated practical clinical training in resuscitation, which required selecting drugs while monitoring changes in blood pressure, pulse, and arterial blood oxygen saturation. Training encompassed the monitoring of routes of drug administration, drawing of simulated blood, vital-sign monitoring based on a pharmaceutical universal training model, vital-sign monitoring devices and simulators, and medical emergency education using biological simulators.

Assessment

Before and after bedside training, students were asked to complete a questionnaire to assess their understanding of vital sign monitoring and emergency care. Students successfully learned how to monitor routes of drug administration, vital signs, and pathological conditions. There was a significant increase in students'' recognition of the importance of vital-sign monitoring.

Conclusion

Experienced-based training using patient simulators successfully prepared pharmacy students to monitor vitals signs and identify drug treatment effects and adverse events.     

The status of PhD education in economic, social, and administrative sciences between 2005 and 2008

Objectives

To describe the funding, education, enrollment, and graduation patterns from economic, social, and administrative sciences PhD programs in colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States.

Methods

Economic, social, and administrative sciences PhD programs were identified from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Web site. A 41-item online survey instrument was sent to the director of graduate studies of each identified program. Only programs offering a PhD degree were included in the study.

Results

Of the 26 programs surveyed, 20 (77%) provided useable responses to the survey instrument. Approximately 91% of PhD programs guarantee funding to incoming students with an average commitment of 2.9 years. On average, students were paid a stipend of $18,000 per year for commitments to research and teaching assistantships, each averaging approximately 2 years in length. Programs admitted an average of 3.5 students per year and graduated approximately 85% of entering students. The majority of students are non-US citizens and accept positions in either academic or industrial positions after graduation.

Conclusions

Most economic, social, and administrative sciences PhD programs guarantee funding to incoming PhD candidates. Programs offering funding packages significantly below the average may be at a competitive disadvantage. It is unclear whether the number of students graduating from PhD programs is adequate to fulfill academic and industrial needs.     

Poster project to emphasize public health in the pharmacy curriculum

Objective

To implement and assess a required public health poster project in a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program.

Design

Third-year PharmD students collaborated in pairs to research a public health topic relating to pharmacy practice. Each student group prepared an informational poster, while receiving feedback from a faculty mentor at each stage of the project. The students presented their completed posters at a statewide pharmacy conference.

Assessment

Faculty members evaluated the posters with a grading rubric, and students completed a survey instrument that assessed the overall experience. In general, faculty members rated the class highly across all domains of the grading rubric. The class generally agreed that the poster project increased their awareness of public health issues related to pharmacy practice, overall knowledge of public health, and presentation skills.

Conclusion

The implementation of a poster project was well received by students and faculty members as an effective method for enhancing public health instruction in the PharmD program at North Dakota State University.     

An Enhanced Community Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experience Model to Improve Patient Care

Objective

To quantify the benefits of an enhanced advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) community pharmacy model compared to the traditional program by comparing basic and comprehensive pharmaceutical care provided by students and assessing preceptors’ perceptions of the APPE.

Methods

A pilot study consisting of 1 enhanced APPE arm and 2 traditional APPE (control) arms was conducted. The enhanced APPE consisted of a preceptor education program, a 5-day onsite student orientation, and an 8-week experience completed at 1 rather than 2 community sites.

Results

The level of interventions provided by students in the enhanced APPE arm significantly surpassed that of students in the control arms. In addition, preceptor questionnaires indicated overwhelming support for the enhanced model over the traditional APPE.

Conclusions

The study''s findings demonstrated that the enhanced APPE model enabled the participating pharmacies to provide increased level of patient care (as compared to the control sites) and improved preceptor satisfaction with the APPE.     

A summer research training program to foster PharmD students' interest in research

Objectives

To establish and assess the effectiveness of a 10-week summer research program on increasing doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students'' interest in research, particularly as it related to future career choices.

Design

Survey instruments were sent to 25 participants who had completed the research program in the summer of 2004, 2005, or 2006 to assess their satisfaction with the program and its influence on their career choices after graduation.

Assessment

Respondents reported a high degree of satisfaction with the program, indicating that the program allowed them to determine their suitability for a career in research, and 55% reported their intention to pursue additional research training.

Conclusion

A brief introduction to the clinical research environment helped pharmacy students understand the clinical sciences and careers in research. The introduction increased the likelihood of students pursuing a research career path after obtaining their PharmD degree.     

Medication therapy management training using case studies and the MirixaPro platform

Objective

To implement and assess a medication therapy management (MTM) training program for pharmacy students using the MirixaPro (Mirixa Corporation, Reston, VA) platform and case studies.

Design

Students received lectures introducing MTM and were given a demonstration of the MirixaPro platform. They were divided into teams and assigned cases and times to interview patients portrayed by faculty members. Using the MirixaPro system, students performed 2 comprehensive medication reviews during the semester, recording the patient''s current medications, indications, side effects, allergies, health conditions, and laboratory test recommendations and developed a personal medication record and medication action plan.

Assessment

Based on a rubric with a rating scale of 0-10, campus and distance pathway students received mean scores ranging from 6.3-7.4 for their performance on the second MTM exercise, an increase of 47%-54% over the first MTM exercise. In qualitative assessments, the majority of students believed that their confidence in providing MTM was enhanced by the activity, while faculty members recognized the advantage of using MirixaPro, which allowed students to experience what is required in processing a pharmacist led, billable MTM encounter.

Conclusions

Use of the MirixaPro system and patient cases provides students with a “hands-on” experience that may encourage them to promote MTM during their APPEs and provide MTM services as practicing pharmacists.     

Comparison of Patients' Expectations and Experiences at Traditional Pharmacies and Pharmacies Offering Enhanced Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objectives

To compare patients'' expectations and experiences at pharmacies offering traditional APPE learning opportunities with those offering enhanced APPEs that incorporate pharmaceutical care activities.

Methods

A survey of anchored measures of patient satisfaction was conducted in 2 groups of APPE- affiliated community pharmacies: those participating in an enhanced APPE model versus those participating in the traditional model. The enhanced intervention included preceptor training, a comprehensive student orientation, and an extended experience at a single pharmacy rather than the traditional 2 x 4-week experience at different pharmacies.

Results

While patient expectations were similar in both traditional and enhanced APPE pharmacies, patients in enhanced pharmacies reported significantly higher in-store satisfaction and fewer service gaps. Additionally, satisfaction was significantly higher for patients who had received any form of consultation, from either pharmacist or students, than those reporting no consultations.

Conclusion

Including provision of pharmaceutical care services as part of APPEs resulted in direct and measurable improvements in patient satisfaction.     

Professional competencies learned through working on a medication education project

Objectives

To implement a medication education project and assess the competencies students learned and implemented in professional practice after graduation.

Design

Fourth-year pharmacy students planned, carried out, and reported on a real-life project during 1 study year. Outside experts and 2 faculty members facilitated the work. The aim of the medication education project was to create material that schoolteachers could use to teach children about rational use of medicines.

Assessment

All students who had participated in the medication education program during its 3 years were contacted (n = 31). A questionnaire was sent to the 21 students who had graduated (18 responded), and a focus group was conducted with the 10 students completing their final year of pharmacy school (9 participants). The competencies that the students reported learning most were teamwork and social interaction skills. They considered the project motivating but also found it challenging and the deadlines frustrating.

Conclusions

Through participation in a medication education project, students learned interpersonal skills, time management, conflict resolution, and other skills that many of them already were finding valuable in their professional practice.     

Provision of medication therapy management to university faculty and staff members by third-year pharmacy students

Objective

To develop and implement a medication therapy management (MTM) curriculum and assess students'' skills and attitudes after the provision of MTM services to faculty and staff members.

Design

Third-year students enrolled in a pharmaceutical care laboratory course received lectures and participated in MTM activities in preparation for an MTM encounter. Students conduced MTM sessions with university faculty and staff members, providing comprehensive medication review, blood pressure checks, and optional blood glucose and cholesterol (total cholesterol and HDL) screenings.

Assessment

A faculty-developed rubric was used to evaluate students'' ability to explain MTM to the participant and address medication-related problems. Students'' responses on pre- and post-encounter survey instruments showed their confidence to provide MTM services, communicate with participants and other health care providers, and provide point-of-care screening services had increased.

Conclusion

Incorporating MTM into an existing laboratory course increased students'' confidence and perceived ability to provide MTM services.     

Impact of the Career Explorers program on high school students' perceptions of the pharmacy profession

Objective

To determine the effect of a 5-week Career Explorers Program (CEP) on high school students'' perceptions of pharmacists'' characteristics, duties, and training.

Methods

A 16-item survey instrument with attitudinal, frequency, and relative quantity response options was completed by all CEP students on the first and last day of the program. The survey assessed students'' attitudes concerning pharmacist characteristics, duties, and training.

Results

All students who participated in the CEP in 2003 completed the survey instrument (n = 50). Seventy percent of respondents'' answers to the attitudinal subscale questions significantly changed from preassessment to postassessment.

Conclusion

A 5-week CEP provided high school students with more realistic perceptions of pharmacists'' roles, duties, and training before the students entered the pharmacy program.     

Achieving Equivalent Academic Performance Between Campuses Using a Distributed Education Model

Objectives

To demonstrate that students in competency-based anatomy and pharmaceutical calculations courses performed similarly whether enrolled in the classes through distance education or face-to-face lectures.

Methods

Student outcomes data including module examination scores, final course grades, and student demographics data were collected, merged, and analyzed.

Results

Mean module examination final scores and final course grades did not significantly differ between students at the lecture site and students at the remote site.

Conclusions

The competency-based anatomy and pharmaceutical calculations courses, whether remote or at the lecture site, provided equitable learning opportunities and roughly equivalent learning outcomes for students.     

Program to Prepare Pharmacy Students for Their Postgraduate Training Search

Objective

To design and assess an educational program for preparing pharmacy students for success during the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists Midyear Clinical Meeting (ASHP-MCM) and postgraduate training search.

Design

An informational handout packet was prepared and a 1-hour educational forum was conducted prior to the 2007 and 2008 ASHP-MCMs. Following the ASHP-MCM, participating students were invited to complete an anonymous online survey instrument.

Assessment

Among the 66 participating students, 73% agreed they were adequately prepared for the ASHP-MCM, with 89%, 80%, and 79% agreeing the educational forum equipped them for their activities preceding, during, and following the ASHP-MCM, and 90%, 83%, and 69% agreeing the informational handout packet equipped them for their activities preceding, during, and following the ASHP-MCM. Among 14 students seeking a residency during the 2008 ASHP-MCM, 86% were successfully placed with a program.

Conclusion

An educational program was useful in preparing students for success during the ASHP-MCM and postgraduate training search.     

An electronic NAPLEX review program for longitudinal assessment of pharmacy students' knowledge

Objectives

To track pharmacy student knowledge over time using a proprietary software program in an accelerated program for curricular assessment.

Methods

All students were required to complete a computerized comprehensive diagnostic examination 3 times during the doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program: at the beginning of the second year, and near the end of the second and third years. The examination was comprised of 100 questions in 3 content areas: pharmacotherapy, preparation and dispensing of medications, and providing health care information. Within-subject differences in mean area and total percent scores were compared.

Results

Based on 123 students'' data, mean scores for pharmacotherapy and total percent scores for examination 1 were significantly different from examinations 2 and 3.

Conclusion

The computer-based comprehensive diagnostic examination shows promise for use as a component of a comprehensive assessment plan.     

Attributes of Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy in the United States

Objectives

To compare the attributes of US colleges and schools of pharmacy and describe the extent of change to the pharmacy education enterprise associated with the addition of new schools.

Methods

Attributes analyzed included whether the college or school of pharmacy was old or new, public or private, secular or faith-based, and on or not on an academic health center (AHC) campus; had 3- or 4- year programs; and had PhD students enrolled. PharmD student enrollment-to-faculty ratios and junior-to-senior faculty ratios also were examined.

Results

Of the new colleges/schools, 76% were private and 79% were not located on a campus with an AHC; 6% had PhD enrollment compared with 80% of old colleges/schools. Faculty ratios were related to several college/school attributes, including the presence or absence of PhD students and whether the college/school was public or private.

Conclusions

Attributes of new colleges and schools of pharmacy have changed the overall profile of all colleges and schools of pharmacy. For example, smaller percentages of all colleges and schools of pharmacy are public and have PhD enrollees.     

Incorporating an Immunization Certificate Program into the Pharmacy Curriculum

Objective

To describe the method of incorporating an immunization certificate training program, such as the American Pharmacists Association''s (APhA) Pharmacy-Based Immunization Delivery into a pharmacy curriculum.

Design

The program was delivered over 3 weeks in the spring semester of the third professional year (P3) as part of a required Pharmacy Care Lab sequence.

Assessment

Student response surveys and faculty input were used to evaluate the placement of the program in the curriculum.

Conclusion

Optional comments yielded more than 44% of students providing positive open-ended feedback regarding the course while almost 10% felt the course should not be mandated in the curriculum.     

Curriculum Reform in Finnish Pharmacy Education

Objective

To improve pharmacy education through integrating theory and practice, coherent constructively aligned course entities, and enhanced deep-level learning.

Design

The reform was conducted collaboratively with faculty and staff members, students, and stakeholders in pharmacy. The curriculum, syllabus, and teaching methods were assessed through evaluations and research, conducting core content analyses, and measuring the workload of pharmacy education courses. The new curriculum, launched in August 2005, consists of 6 strands, comprised of different courses which run through the entire program.

Assessment

Three years after the introduction of the reformed curriculum, the results of the reform are being evaluated. Ongoing assessments of teaching and learning will reveal how the education at the faculty level has developed since the reform. These assessment procedures are an integral part of the faculty''s quality assurance program.

Conclusion

The integration of practical training and theoretical studies was improved with personal study plans introduced to enhance students’ learning.