全民健康覆盖:从理念到行动

世界卫生组织对全民健康覆盖界定为:所有人都应当享有所需要的、有质量的卫生服务,并且不因利用这些服务出现经济困难。全民健康覆盖的核心价值取向是社会公平,实现全民健康覆盖的主要任务是缩小国家间、地区间和人群间卫生服务可及性和费用负担的差距。国际组织和世界上许多国家正在为推进全民健康覆盖付诸努力。我国卫生改革与发展对国际社会推动全民健康覆盖做出了重要贡献,但全面实现目标还任重道远。     

Demographic factors and attitudes that influence the support of the general public for the introduction of universal healthcare in Ireland: A national survey

Ireland is still struggling to end the inequitable two-tiered health system and introduce universal healthcare (UHC). Public opinion can influence health policy choice and implementation. However, the public are rarely asked for their views. This study describes the demographic and attitudinal factors that influence the support of the public for the introduction of UHC. It provides data on a nationally representative survey sample of n = 972. There are high levels of support for the introduction of UHC (n = 846 87.0%). Logistic regression analyses indicated that demographic factors, such as, the location of respondent, whether the respondent was in receipt of Government supported healthcare, a purchaser of private health insurance or neither; plus attitudinal factors, such as, opinions on the Government prioritising healthcare, healthcare being free at the point of access, taxes being increased to provide care free at the point of access and how well informed participants felt about UHC were associated with agreeing with the introduction of UHC in Ireland. This paper is timely for policy leaders both in Ireland and internationally as countries with UHC, such as the United Kingdom, are facing difficulties maintaining health services in the public realm.     

Examining the density in out-of-pocket spending share in the estimation of catastrophic health expenditures

The European Journal of Health Economics - Universal health coverage (UHC) aims to provide access to health services for all without financial hardship. Moving toward UHC while ensuring financial...     

Addressing healthy aging populations in developing countries: unlocking the opportunity of eHealth and mHealth

Aging societies worldwide propose a significant challenge to the model and organisation of the delivery of healthcare services. In developing countries, communicable and non-communicable diseases are affecting how the ageing population access healthcare; this could be due to varying reasons such as geographical barriers, limited financial support and poor literacy. New information and communication technology, such as eHealth have the potential to improve access to healthcare, information exchange and improving public and personalised medicine for elderly groups. In this article we will first frame the context of information and communication technologies in light of an aging landscape. We will also discuss the problems related to implementing the needed infrastructure for uptake of new technology, with particular emphasis on developing countries. In so doing, we highlight areas where newer technologies can serve as promising tools or vehicles to address health and healthcare-related gaps and needs of elderly people living in resource-constrained settings.     

Understanding Health Literacy for Strategic Health Marketing: eHealth Literacy,Health Disparities,and the Digital Divide

Even despite policy efforts aimed at reducing health-related disparities, evidence mounts that population-level gaps in literacy and healthcare quality are increasing. This widening of disparities in American culture is likely to worsen over the coming years due, in part, to our increasing reliance on Internet-based technologies to disseminate health information and services. The purpose of the current article is to incorporate health literacy into an Integrative Model of eHealth Use. We argue for this theoretical understanding of eHealth literacy and propose that macro-level disparities in social structures are connected to health disparities through the micro-level conduits of eHealth literacy, motivation, and ability. In other words, structural inequities reinforce themselves and continue to contribute to healthcare disparities through the differential distribution of technologies that simultaneously enhance and impede literacy, motivation, and ability of different groups (and individuals) in the population. We conclude the article by suggesting pragmatic implications of our analysis.     

Mongolian Health Sector Strategic Master Plan (2006‐2015): A foundation for achieving universal health coverage

Nearly half of the countries in the world are in the process of reforming and strengthening their health care systems. More recently, even low‐income and middle‐income countries such as Mongolia have focused increasing attention on achieving universal health coverage (UHC). At this critical point, it is necessary to track recent progress and adjust health care strategies and planning. Therefore, this study analyzed changes in the health sector toward achieving UHC based on relevant literature, government documents, and framework analysis. We also investigated how basic principles of UHC were incorporated and reflected in Mongolia's Health Sector Strategic Master Plan. This study clarified the achievements of and challenges facing the health sector that remain or emerged during the plan's implementation over the last decade. Furthermore, all of the reviewed Master Plan strategies were underpinned by basic principles of UHC. However, strategies set out in the next Master Plan will require adjustments and innovative measures to respond to current challenges. This study may be used as a reference for other developing countries to track UHC achievements and serve as a guide to establishing a nation‐wide strategic plan.     

Understanding health literacy for strategic health marketing: eHealth literacy, health disparities, and the digital divide

Even despite policy efforts aimed at reducing health-related disparities, evidence mounts that population-level gaps in literacy and healthcare quality are increasing. This widening of disparities in American culture is likely to worsen over the coming years due, in part, to our increasing reliance on Internet-based technologies to disseminate health information and services. The purpose of the current article is to incorporate health literacy into an Integrative Model of eHealth Use. We argue for this theoretical understanding of eHealth literacy and propose that macro-level disparities in social structures are connected to health disparities through the micro-level conduits of eHealth literacy, motivation, and ability. In other words, structural inequities reinforce themselves and continue to contribute to healthcare disparities through the differential distribution of technologies that simultaneously enhance and impede literacy, motivation, and ability of different groups (and individuals) in the population. We conclude the article by suggesting pragmatic implications of our analysis.     

Exploring digital divides: an examination of eHealth technology use in health information seeking, communication and personal health information management in the USA

Recent government initiatives to deploy health information technology in the USA, coupled with a growing body of scholarly evidence linking online heath information and positive health-related behaviors, indicate a widespread belief that access to health information and health information technologies can help reduce healthcare inequalities. However, it is less clear whether the benefits of greater access to online health information and health information technologies is equitably distributed across population groups, particularly to those who are underserved. To examine this issue, this article employs the 2007 Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) to investigate relationships between a variety of socio-economic variables and the use of the web-based technologies for health information seeking, personal health information management and patient-provider communication within the context of the USA. This study reveals interesting patterns in technology adoption, some of which are in line with previous studies, while others are less clear. Whether these patterns indicate early evidence of a narrowing divide in eHealth technology use across population groups as a result of the narrowing divide in Internet access and computer ownership warrants further exploration. In particular, the findings emphasize the need to explore differences in the use of eHealth tools by medically underserved and disadvantaged groups. In so doing, it will be important to explore other psychosocial variables, such as health literacy, that may be better predictors of health consumers' eHealth technology adoption.     

Implementation of information and communication technologies for health in Bangladesh

Problem

Bangladesh has yet to develop a fully integrated health information system infrastructure that is critical to guiding policy development and planning.

Approach

Initial pilot telemedicine and eHealth programmes were not coordinated at national level. However, in 2011, a national eHealth policy was implemented.

Local setting

Bangladesh has made substantial improvements to its health system. However, the country still faces public health challenges with limited and inequitable access to health services and lack of adequate resources to meet the demands of the population.

Relevant changes

In 2008, eHealth services were introduced, including computerization of health facilities at sub-district levels, internet connections, internet servers and an mHealth service for communicating with health-care providers. Health facilities at sub-district levels were provided with internet connections and servers. In 482 upazila health complexes and district hospitals, an mHealth service was set-up where an on-duty doctor is available for patients at all hours to provide consultations by mobile phone. A government operated telemedicine service was initiated and by 2014, 43 fully equipped centres were in service. These centres provide medical consultations by qualified physicians to patients visiting rural and remote community clinics and union health centres.

Lessons learnt

Despite early pilot interventions and successful implementation, progress in adopting eHealth strategies in Bangladesh has been slow. There is a lack of common standards on information technology for health, which causes difficulties in data management and sharing among different databases. Limited internet bandwidth and the high cost of infrastructure and software development are barriers to adoption of these technologies.     

Sexual and reproductive health and rights in changing health systems

Sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) are centrally important to health. However, there have been significant shortcomings in implementing SRHR to date. In the context of health systems reform and universal health coverage/care (UHC), this paper explores the following questions. What do these changes in health systems thinking mean for SRHR and gender equity in health in the context of renewed calls for increased investments in the health of women and girls? Can SRHR be integrated usefully into the call for UHC, and if so how? Can health systems reforms address the continuing sexual and reproductive ill health and violations of sexual and reproductive rights (SRR)? Conversely, can the attention to individual human rights that is intrinsic to the SRHR agenda and its continuing concerns about equality, quality and accountability provide impetus for strengthening the health system? The paper argues that achieving equity on the UHC path will require a combination of system improvements and services that benefit all, together with special attention to those whose needs are great and who are likely to fall behind in the politics of choice and voice (i.e., progressive universalism paying particular attention to gender inequalities).     

Universal Health Coverage for India by 2022: A Utopia or Reality?

It is the obligation of the state to provide free and universal access to quality health-care services to its citizens. India continues to be among the countries of the world that have a high burden of diseases. The various health program and policies in the past have not been able to achieve the desired goals and objectives. 65^th World Health Assembly in Geneva identified universal health coverage (UHC) as the key imperative for all countries to consolidate the public health advances. Accordingly, Planning Commission of India constituted a high level expert group (HLEG) on UHC in October 2010. HLEG submitted its report in Nov 2011 to Planning Commission on UHC for India by 2022. The recommendations for the provision of UHC pertain to the critical areas such as health financing, health infrastructure, health services norms, skilled human resources, access to medicines and vaccines, management and institutional reforms, and community participation. India faces enormous challenges to achieve UHC by 2022 such as high disease prevalence, issues of gender equality, unregulated and fragmented health-care delivery system, non-availability of adequate skilled human resource, vast social determinants of health, inadequate finances, lack of inter-sectoral co-ordination and various political pull and push of different forces, and interests. These challenges can be met by a paradigm shift in health policies and programs in favor of vulnerable population groups, restructuring of public health cadres, reorientation of undergraduate medical education, more emphasis on public health research, and extensive education campaigns. There are still areas of concern in fulfilling the objectives of achieving UHC by 2022 regarding financing model for health-care delivery, entitlement package, cost of health-care interventions and declining state budgets. However, the Government''s commitment to provide adequate finances, recent bold social policy initiatives and enactments such as food security bill, enhanced participation by civil society in all health matters, major initiative by some states such as Tamil Nadu to improve health, water, and sanitation services are good enough reasons for hope that UHC can be achieved by 2022. However, in the absence of sustained financial support, strong political will and leadership, dedicated involvement of all stakeholders and community participation, attainment of UHC by 2022 will remain a Utopia.     

Health financing for universal coverage and health system performance: concepts and implications for policy

Unless the concept is clearly understood, “universal coverage” (or universal health coverage, UHC) can be used to justify practically any health financing reform or scheme. This paper unpacks the definition of health financing for universal coverage as used in the World Health Organization’s World health report 2010 to show how UHC embodies specific health system goals and intermediate objectives and, broadly, how health financing reforms can influence these.All countries seek to improve equity in the use of health services, service quality and financial protection for their populations. Hence, the pursuit of UHC is relevant to every country. Health financing policy is an integral part of efforts to move towards UHC, but for health financing policy to be aligned with the pursuit of UHC, health system reforms need to be aimed explicitly at improving coverage and the intermediate objectives linked to it, namely, efficiency, equity in health resource distribution and transparency and accountability.The unit of analysis for goals and objectives must be the population and health system as a whole. What matters is not how a particular financing scheme affects its individual members, but rather, how it influences progress towards UHC at the population level. Concern only with specific schemes is incompatible with a universal coverage approach and may even undermine UHC, particularly in terms of equity. Conversely, if a scheme is fully oriented towards system-level goals and objectives, it can further progress towards UHC. Policy and policy analysis need to shift from the scheme to the system level.     

Globalisation and neoliberalism as structural drivers of health inequities

If there is one universal recommendation to countries wanting to make progress towards Universal Health Coverage (UHC), it is to develop the learning capacities that will enable them to ‘find their own way’ – this is especially true for countries struggling with fragmented health financing systems. This paper explores results from a multi-country study whose main aim was to assess the extent to which UHC systems and processes at country level operate as ‘learning systems’. This study is part of a multi-year action-research project implemented by two communities of practice active in Africa. For this specific investigation, we adapted the concept of the learning organisation to so-called ‘UHC systems’. Our framework organises the assessment around 92 questions divided into blocks, sub-blocks and levels of learning, with a seven scale score in a standardised questionnaire developed during a protocol and methodology workshop attended by all the research teams. The study was implemented in six francophone African countries by national research teams involving researchers and cadres of the ministries involved in the UHC policy. Across the six countries, the questionnaire was administrated to 239 UHC actors. Data were analysed per country, per blocks and sub-blocks, by levels of learning and per question. The study confirms the feasibility and relevance of adapting the learning organisation framework to UHC systems. All countries scored between 4 and 5 for all the sub-blocks of the learning system. The study and the validation workshops organised in the six countries indicate that the tool is particularly powerful to assess weaknesses within a specific country. However, some remarkable patterns also emerge from the cross-country analysis. Our respondents recognise the leadership developed at governmental level for UHC, but they also report some major weaknesses in the UHC system, especially the absence of a learning agenda and the limited use of data. Countries will not progress towards UHC without strong learning systems. Our tool has allowed us to document the situation in six countries, create some awareness at country level and initiate a participatory action-oriented process.     

ELECTRONIC HEALTH IN GHANA: CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

The health-care system in Ghana is similar to those in other developing countries and access to health services for remote communities is extremely limited. In July, 2010, the Government of Ghana launched the national e health strategy. A number of international organizations have initiated various pilot projects, including disseminating and collecting data, education initiatives and telemedicine. In addition, several institutions and organizations are dedicated to the promotion of e-health and a range of Web-based health consultancy services have begun. The main objective of this study is to provide an overview of eHealth activities in Ghana. It was a daunting task, not least because of the need to gather information on eHealth projects and initiatives in Ghana, as there is no existing repository of such information. Through literature search in Africa journals online, Hinari, Medline, Google.com, Journal of Telemedicine and e-Health, Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, Journal of Medical Internet Research and Interaction with eHealth experts, followed up with some of the authors'' for directions to other projects, and following the references in some articles. A total of twenty-two (22) pilot projects have been identified in Ghana. Mobile devices in use range from PDAs to simple phones and smart phones. The key findings of this research are that there are about 22 eHealth project at various stages of implementation in Ghana. Some of these projects have wind up and others are still being implemented. Mobile devices in use range from PDAs to simple mobile phones and smart phones. Most of the projects have been donor initiated. Data collection started in March 2010 to June 2013. Although eHealth seems to have a limited role in Ghana at present, there is growing interest in the opportunities it may offer in terms of improving the delivery and access to services, especially in remote locations. Recommendations for further research are provided.     

Perceived eHealth Literacy and Information Behavior of Older Adults Enrolled in a Health Information Outreach Program

In collaboration with a public library system, faculty from a health sciences center library offered a series of courses for older adults based on the NIHSeniorHealth Toolkit for Trainers. A mixed-methods survey was offered to all program attendees during the training sessions. The survey assessed participants’ perceived eHealth literacy, which websites they searched for eHealth information, participants’ most/least trusted sources of health information, and if/what barriers exist for older adults when searching for eHealth information. Results from this pilot program indicate that participants believe access to eHealth resources is important and useful, but are unsure what online resources are available, how to find them, or how to evaluate their quality.     

The economics of eHealth and mHealth

While mHealth has the potential to overcome traditional obstacles to the delivery of health services to the poor in lower and middle-income countries--issues related to access, quality, time, and resources--there is little evidence as to whether the expected benefits and savings can be actualized on a large scale. As a first step to developing the investment case for mHealth, this article outlines some of the key economic and financial questions that need to be answered in developing in-country eHealth investments. The proposed questions focus on the costs of eHealth infrastructure; regulatory structures that provide incentives at different levels of the health delivery system to encourage investment in, and use of, eHealth; and measuring the outcomes of successful eHealth utilization, including anticipated return on investment.     

Identifying environmental risk factors for asthma emergency care" a multilevel approach for ecological study

This ongoing empirical study suggests a model for evaluating a combination of environmental risk factors to explain neighborhood differences in adult use of Harlem Hospital's Asthma Emergency Department services. A multilevel or "nested" model incorporates methods for hypothesis testing using geographic information systems (GIS) and existing data from Harlem Hospital Center, city agencies, and other sources to measure variables on both building and street segment levels. Selection of the best geographic scale by which to measure housing conditions, neighborhood physical quality, income indicators, and access to healthcare is an important strategy toward identifying neighborhood socioenvironmental patterns contributing to geographic clustering of asthma emergencies. Specific community interventions may then be defined to improve the health outcomes of residents with asthma.     

Social health insurance in Nepal: A health system departure toward the universal health coverage

The World Health Organization has identified universal health coverage (UHC) as a key approach in reducing equity gaps in a country, and the social health insurance (SHI) has been recommended as an important strategy toward it. This article aims to analyze the design, expected benefits and challenges of realizing the goals of UHC through the recently launched SHI in Nepal. On top of the earlier free health‐care policy and several other vertical schemes, the SHI scheme was implemented in 2016 and has reached population coverage of 5% in the implemented districts in just within a year of implementation. However, to achieve UHC in Nepal, in addition to operationalizing the scheme, several other requirements must be dealt simultaneously such as efficient health‐care delivery system, adequate human resources for health, a strong information system, improved transparency and accountability, and a balanced mix of the preventive, health promotion, curative, and rehabilitative services including actions to address the social determinants of health. The article notes that strong political commitment and persistent efforts are the key lessons learnt from countries achieving progressive UHC through SHI.     

Assessing Ghana’s eHealth workforce: implications for planning and training

Background

eHealth—the proficient application of information and communication technology to support healthcare delivery—has been touted as one of the best solutions to address quality and accessibility challenges in healthcare. Although eHealth could be of more value to health systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where resources are limited, identification of a competent workforce which can develop and maintain eHealth systems is a key barrier to adoption. Very little is known about the actual or optimal states of the eHealth workforce needs of LMICs. The objective of this study was to develop a framework to characterize and assess the eHealth workforce of hospitals in LMICs.

Methods

To characterize and assess the sufficiency of the workforce, we designed this study in twofold. First, we developed a general framework to categorize the eHealth workforce at any LMIC setting. Second, we combined qualitative data, using semi-structured interviews and the Workload Indicator of Staffing Needs (WISN) to assess the sufficiency of the eHealth workforce in selected hospitals in a LMIC setting like Ghana.

Results

We surveyed 76 (60%) of the eHealth staff from three hospitals in Ghana—La General Hospital, University of Ghana Hospital, and Greater Accra Regional Hospital. We identified two main eHealth cadres, technical support/information technology (IT) and health information management (HIM). While the HIM cadre presented diversity in expertise, the IT group was dominated by training in Science (42%) and Engineering (55%), and the majority (87%) had at least a bachelor’s degree. Health information clerk (32%), health information officer (25%), help desk specialist (20%), and network administrator (11%) were the most dominant roles. Based on the WISN assessment, the eHealth workforce at all the surveyed sites was insufficient. La General and University of Ghana were operating at 10% of required IT staff capacity, while Ridge was short by 42%.

Conclusions

We have developed a framework to characterize and assess the eHealth workforce in LMICs. Applying it to a case study in Ghana has given us a better understanding of potential eHealth staffing needs in LMICs, while providing the quantitative basis for building the requisite human capital to drive eHealth initiatives. Educators can also use our results to explore competency gaps and refine curricula for burgeoning training programs. The findings of this study can serve as a springboard for other LMICs to assess the effects of a well-trained eHealth workforce on the return on eHealth investments.

     

Role of teleconsultation in moving the healthcare system forward

The equitable access to quality healthcare by Malaysians has consistently been the primary objective of the Ministry of Health (MOH). The epidemiological transition to chronic illnesses, advances in medical technology, escalating healthcare costs and rising patient expectations has necessitated the strategic use of information systems in healthcare delivery. Malaysia has broken new ground by implementing a nationwide network to address inadequate access to healthcare, as well as to lower costs and achieve better health outcomes. Teleconsultation refers to the electronic transmission of medical information and services from one site to another using telecommunication technologies. This technology transforms the healthcare system by rapidly matching patient needs with the appropriate level of care however geographically remote they may be. Our findings suggest that even in these early stages of implementation, teleconsultation has led to cost savings, a more efficient allocation of resources, enhanced diagnostic options and better health outcomes.