Trait self-acceptance mediates parental childhood abuse predicting depression and anxiety symptoms in adulthood

BackgroundBiopsychosocial models posit that experiencing parental childhood abuse increases vulnerability to psychopathology in adulthood. There are a lack of studies investigating mediators of the parental childhood abuse–adulthood psychopathology relation. The current study investigated if trait self-acceptance mediated the parental childhood abuse–adulthood major depressive disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and panic disorder (PD) severity relations.MethodsParticipants (n = 3294) partook in the 18-year Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS) study at three time-points. We conducted structural equation modeling analyses to test how maternal and paternal childhood abuse at Time 1 would independently positively predict MDD, GAD, and PD severity at Time 3, and if self-acceptance at Time 2 mediated those relations while controlling for adulthood MDD, GAD, and PD severity at Time 1.ResultsSelf-acceptance notably mediated the parental childhood abuse-adulthood MDD, GAD, and PD relations. Overall, higher paternal and maternal childhood abuse was associated with lower self-acceptance. Reduced self-acceptance predicted heightened adulthood MDD, GAD, and PD.ConclusionFindings highlight the importance of understanding the parental childhood abuse–adulthood psychopathology relation and the possible mechanisms of its long-term impact.     

Does Harm Avoidance mediate effects of recollected parental bonding on mental distress in adulthood?

Background

Adverse early life conditions such as perceived low quality of parental bonding increase vulnerability to stress and psychopathology in adulthood. However, the mechanisms by which perceptions of parental bonding translate into vulnerability are unclear and remain sparsely investigated in healthy populations. We proposed a model, in which the personality trait Harm Avoidance would mediate effects of recollected parental bonding during the first sixteen years of life on measures of perceived stress and mental distress severity in adulthood.

Method

Five-hundred-eighteen adults (65.1 % women), aged 18–53 years, completed questionnaires of parental bonding, perceived stress, trait Harm Avoidance, and severity of mental distress. Direct and indirect effects mediated through trait Harm Avoidance were examined in a structural equation model.

Results

Under the causal assumptions of our proposed model, indirect effects of trait Harm Avoidance mediated the relationship between parental overprotection and severity of mental distress, while significantly attenuating the direct effects of parental care on severity of mental distress. Moreover, indirect effects of trait Harm Avoidance significantly attenuated the direct effects of parental overprotection and care on perceived stress.

Conclusion

In this large sample of mentally healthy adults, recollected parental bonding was significantly associated with levels of perceived stress and severity of mental distress. The results from our proposed model further suggest that trait Harm Avoidance may be a developmental link, by which the quality of recollected parental bonding in childhood translates into adult vulnerability to stress and mental distress.     

The BDNF-Val66Met polymorphism modulates parental rearing effects on adult psychiatric symptoms: A community twin-based study

PurposeTo test whether firstly, different parental rearing components were associated with different dimensions of psychiatric symptoms in adulthood, secondly BDNF-Val66Met polymorphism moderated this association and thirdly, this association was due to genetic confounding.MethodPerceived parental rearing according to Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), psychiatric symptoms evaluated with the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) and the BDNF-Val66Met polymorphism were analyzed in a sample of 232 adult twins from the general population.ResultsIn the whole sample, paternal care was negatively associated with depression. Maternal overprotection was positively associated with paranoid ideation, obsession-compulsion and somatization. Gene-environment interaction effects were detected between the BDNF-Val66Met polymorphism and maternal care on phobic anxiety, paternal care on hostility, maternal overprotection on somatization and paternal overprotection also in somatization. In the subsample of MZ twins, intrapair differences in maternal care were associated with anxiety, paranoid ideation and somatization.ConclusionsMet carriers were, in general, more sensitive to the effects of parental rearing compared to Val/Val carriers in relation to anxiety and somatization. Contra-intuitively, our findings suggest that high rates of maternal care might be of risk for Met carriers regarding anxiety. Results from analyses controlling for genetic confounding were in line with this finding.     

Adult separation anxiety and unsettled infant behavior: Associations with adverse parenting during childhood and insecure adult attachment

ObjectiveThis study examined the prevalence and correlates of Adult Separation Anxiety Disorder (ASAD) and Adult Separation Anxiety (ASA) symptoms in a sample of first-time mothers with an unsettled infant during the first postpartum year.MethodsEighty-three primiparous women admitted to a residential parent–infant program participated in a structured clinical interview for DSM-IV diagnosis and questionnaires assessing ASA symptoms, adult attachment and childhood parenting experiences. Nurses recorded infant behavior using 24-hour charts.ResultsThe prevalence of ASAD in this sample was 19.3% and women with ASAD were, on average, more likely to be diagnosed with depression and anxiety disorders, report aversive parenting experiences during childhood and show adult attachment style insecurity. Both ASAD and ASA symptoms were predicted by adult attachment anxiety, and ASAD was associated with unsettled infant behavior. Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance mediated relations between parental over-control and ASAD diagnosis, and between parental abuse and ASAD diagnosis. Attachment anxiety mediated the relation between parental over-control and ASA symptoms, and attachment avoidance mediated the relations of parental over-control and parental abuse with ASA symptoms.ConclusionsThis study highlights the prevalence of ASAD among first time mothers experiencing early parenting difficulties and the roles of childhood parenting experiences and adult attachment style in the development of the disorder. This points to the importance of introducing universal screening for ASAD in postnatal settings, and for the development of targeted interventions.     

The relationship between memories for childhood teasing and anxiety and depression in adulthood

This study explored the relationship between memories for childhood teasing and anxiety and depression in adulthood. A Teasing Questionnaire (TQ) was developed that measured the degree to which people recall having been teased about 20 different topics during childhood. The TQ was completed by a sample of 514 undergraduates who also completed established measures of anxiety and depression. A one-factor model best accounted for the variance in TQ scores, and the total score was shown to have strong internal consistency. Scores on the TQ were significantly and positively related to scores on measures of current depression, trait anxiety, social anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity. Tests of dependent correlations showed that remembering having been teased during childhood was not differentially related to depression and trait anxiety in adulthood. However, differential relationships between reports of teasing and specific forms of anxiety were shown. Limitations of the study were discussed, as were suggestions for future research in the more general arena of childhood peer relations and adult psychopathology.     

Short STAI-Y anxiety scales: validation and normative data for elderly subjects

Objectives: The aim of this study was to develop short forms of the STAI-Y trait and state scales and associated norms suitable for the screening of anxiety in elderly populations.

Method: This study was based on population-based cohorts of older persons from two epidemiological French studies that each included one subscale of the STAI-Y, i.e. state and trait anxiety scales. For both scales, the most discriminative items were retained and their factorial structure was examined using principal components analysis. Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was estimated and cut-offs and norms were computed.

Results: A 10-item STAI-Y version produced scores similar to those obtained with the full form of the STAI-Y. The factorial structure of the shortened form is comparable to that of the full scales. Results showed good internal consistency (alpha coefficients were 0.92 and 0.85 for short STAI-Y state and trait scales, respectively). Moreover, both short STAI-Y state and trait scales correctly classified 88% of the participants using a cut-off point of 23. Norms for both short trait and state anxiety scales are provided according to age, gender, educational level and depressive symptoms.

Conclusion: Both shortened scales have similar factorial structure and internal consistency to the longer scales and classify anxious/non-anxious elderly with acceptable accuracy. The shorter form is likely to be more acceptable to elderly persons through reduction of fatigue effects.     

Negative Life Events in Childhood,Psychological Problems and Suicide Attempts in Adulthood: A Matched Case-Control Study

The purpose of the study was to investigate relations between childhood negative life events (parental loss, parental mental illness and parental abuse), adult psychological problems (depression, hopelessness, low self-esteem, low self-appraised problem-solving capacity, and alcohol problems) and suicidal behavior. A matched case control design was applied (total N =321). Risk of suicide attempt was found to be related to childhood negative life events as well as to psychological problems of adulthood. Moreover, the effects of childhood events were found to be partially mediated through the psychological problems, and gender-specific risk pathways were identified. For men, the central pathway involved parental mental illness during childhood and low self-esteem in adulthood. For women, childhood abuse, adulthood depression and alcohol problems appeared to constitute central factors. Additionally, effects were found for previous suicide attempts.     

Childhood trauma and current psychological functioning in adults with social anxiety disorder

Etiological models of social anxiety disorder (SAD) suggest that early childhood trauma contributes to the development of this disorder. However, surprisingly little is known about the link between different forms of childhood trauma and adult clinical symptoms in SAD. This study (1) compared levels of childhood trauma in adults with generalized SAD versus healthy controls (HCs), and (2) examined the relationship between specific types of childhood trauma and adult clinical symptoms in SAD. Participants were 102 individuals with generalized SAD and 30 HCs who completed measures of childhood trauma, social anxiety, trait anxiety, depression, and self-esteem. Compared to HCs, individuals with SAD reported greater childhood emotional abuse and emotional neglect. Within the SAD group, childhood emotional abuse and neglect, but not sexual abuse, physical abuse, or physical neglect, were associated with the severity of social anxiety, trait anxiety, depression, and self-esteem.     

Childhood life events and childhood trauma in adult patients with depressive,anxiety and comorbid disorders vs. controls

Hovens JGFM, Wiersma JE, Giltay EJ, van Oppen P, Spinhoven P, Penninx BWJH, Zitman FG. Childhood life events and childhood trauma in adult patients with depressive, anxiety and comorbid disorders vs. controls. Objective: To investigate the association between childhood life events, childhood trauma and the presence of anxiety, depressive or comorbid anxiety and depressive disorders in adulthood. Method: Data are from 1931 adult participants in the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA). Childhood life events included divorce of parents, early parental loss and ‘placed in care’, whereas childhood trauma was assessed as experienced emotional neglect, psychological, physical and sexual abuse prior to age 16. Results: Childhood life events were not associated with psychopathology, except for ‘placed in care’ in the comorbid group. All types of childhood trauma were increasingly prevalent in the following order: controls, anxiety, depression, and comorbid group (P < 0.001). The higher the score was on the childhood trauma index, the stronger the association with psychopathology (P < 0.001). Conclusion: Childhood trauma rather than childhood life events are related to anxiety and depressive disorders. The strong associations with the comorbid group suggest that childhood trauma contributes to the severity of psychopathology. Our study underscores the importance of heightened awareness of the possible presence of childhood trauma, especially in adult patients with comorbid anxiety and depressive disorders.     

Dissociation in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders: What is the role of different types of childhood adversity?

AimsOur study aimed to explore the effects of different types of adverse childhood experiences (e.g. domestic violence, early loss, parental dysfunction, sexual and physical abuse) as well as experiences of sexual and physical abuse in adulthood on dissociative symptoms in adult patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.Methods145 patients were examined for psychotic symptoms with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), for dissociative symptoms with the German version of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) and for adverse experiences in childhood and adulthood with the Structured Trauma Interview (STI).ResultsChildhood physical abuse was reported by 32%, childhood sexual abuse by 17% of the patients. Other forms of childhood adversity were also quite common; 18% had witnessed domestic violence, 26% reported early loss, and nearly half of patients reported at least one condition potentially related to parental dysfunction. The DES total score was significantly associated with childhood sexual abuse, witnessing of domestic violence and paternal dysfunction, as well as with physical violence in adulthood. In the final regression model, reports of paternal dysfunction and sexual abuse in childhood were independently associated with adult dissociation. Variance in dissociative symptoms was mainly explained by paternal dysfunction (18%).ConclusionSubstantial rates of childhood adversity were found and specific associations were evident with adult dissociation amongst psychosis patients who reported sexual abuse or paternal dysfunction in childhood. Therefore, it is important that patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders are routinely asked about a broad range of possible adverse childhood experiences in order to provide appropriate interventions.     

Anxiety sensitivity mediates the relationships between childhood learning experiences and elevated hypochondriacal concerns in young adulthood

OBJECTIVE: the present study investigated childhood learning experiences potentially associated with the development of elevated hypochondriacal concerns in a non-clinical young adult sample, and examined the possible mediating roles of anxiety sensitivity (i.e., fear of anxiety-related symptoms) and trait anxiety (i.e., frequency of anxiety symptoms) in explaining these relationships. METHOD: 197 university students participated in a retrospective assessment of their childhood instrumental (i.e., parental reinforcement) and vicarious (i.e., parental modeling) learning experiences with respect to arousal-reactive (e.g., dizziness) and arousal-non-reactive (e.g., lumps) bodily symptoms, respectively. Childhood learning experiences were assessed using a revised version of the Learning History Questionnaire (LHQ), anxiety sensitivity levels with the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), trait anxiety levels with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait (STAI-T) scale, and degree of hypochondriacal concerns with the Illness Attitudes Scale (IAS)-Total score. RESULTS: consistent with earlier findings [Watt MC, Stewart SH, Cox BJ. A retrospective study of the learning history origins of anxiety sensitivity. Behav Res Ther 1998; 36: 505-525.], elevated anxiety sensitivity levels were associated with increased instrumental and vicarious learning experiences related to both arousal-reactive and arousal-non-reactive bodily symptoms. Similarly, individuals with elevated hypochondriacal concerns also reported both more instrumental and vicarious learning experiences around bodily symptoms than did students with lower levels of such concerns. However, contrary to the hypothesis, the childhood learning experiences related to hypochondriacal concerns were not specific to arousal-non-reactive symptoms, but instead involved parental reinforcement and modeling of bodily symptoms in general (arousal-reactive and -non-reactive symptoms alike). Anxiety sensitivity, but not trait anxiety, partially mediated the relationships between childhood learning experiences and elevated hypochondriacal concerns in young adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: elevated anxiety sensitivity appears to be a risk factor for the development of hypochondriasis when learning experiences have involved both arousal-reactive and arousal-non-reactive bodily symptoms.     

The long-term impact of childhood abuse on internalizing disorders among older adults: The moderating role of self-esteem

Objectives: First, to determine if childhood experiences of abuse have an impact on internalizing disorders (e.g., anxiety and depressive disorders) among older adults. Second, we wish to determine if self-esteem plays a role in explaining the relationship between abuse and internalizing disorders.

Method: First, we conducted an analysis on a population sample of participants aged 50 years or older (mean age = 67 years; SD = 10.3) assessed at two time points, three years apart (Wave 1, N = 1460; Wave 2, N = 1090). We examined the relationship between reports of childhood abuse (physical, emotional, and sexual) and internalizing disorders. Second, we determined the role self-esteem played in explaining the relationship.

Results: We found that childhood experiences of abuse assessed at Wave 1 predicted the number of DSM-IV internalizing disorders occurring three years later. Demonstrating the specificity of self-esteem; we found self-esteem, but not emotional reliance, to moderate the relationship between abuse and internalizing disorders such that childhood abuse had more negative effects on those with low self-esteem compared to those with higher self-esteem. Contrary to prediction, self-esteem did not mediate the relationship between abuse and internalizing disorders.

Conclusion: The negative effects of childhood abuse persist for many years, even into older adulthood. However, contrary to the findings in younger adults, self-esteem was not correlated with childhood abuse in older adults. Moreover, childhood abuse only had a negative effect on those who had low self-esteem. It may be through the process of lifespan development that some abused individuals come to separate out the effects of abuse from their self-concept.     

Childhood adversities and quality of sleep in adulthood: A population-based study of 26,000 Finns

ObjectiveTo find out if childhood adversities predict poor sleep quality in working age.MethodsSurvey data from the Health and Social Support (HeSSup) study was used (N = 25,605, 59% women). Negative childhood adversities and quality of sleep in adulthood were assessed by the questionnaire in 1998. Multinomial regression models were used.ResultsA graded association between childhood adversities and the quality of sleep in adulthood was found. Odds ratio (OR) of poor quality of sleep for those with multiple childhood adversities (3–6) was 3.64 (95% CI 2.94–4.50). The association between childhood adversities and the quality of sleep remained significant after adjustments for work status, use of psychotropic drugs, health behaviours, recent life events and child–parent relationships. Poor quality of sleep was clearly increased among those with both poor child–mother (OR 10.4, 95% CI 6.73–16.07) or poor child–father (OR 5.4, 95% CI 3.89–7.50) relationships and multiple childhood adversities. In the analyses of specific childhood adversities, frequent fear of a family member and serious conflicts in the family showed the strongest associations.ConclusionsThe strong association between childhood adversities and the quality of sleep in adulthood highlights the importance of early life circumstances on adult health. Early stage recognition, prevention and supportive measures against childhood adversities and serious family conflicts should be promoted.     

Childhood family structure and personality disorders in adulthood.

BACKGROUND: The association between childhood family structure and sociodemographic characteristics and personality disorders (PDs) in a general population sample was studied. METHODS: This study is a substudy of the prospective Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort Project with 1588 young adult subjects. The case-finding methods according to the DSM-III-R criteria for PDs were: (1) Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID) for 321 cases who participated in a 2-phase field study, (2) Finnish Hospital Discharge Register data, and (3) analysis of the patient records in public outpatient care in 1982-1997. Statistical analyses were performed on the association between PDs and family background factors. RESULTS: Altogether 110 (7.0%) of the subjects had at least one probable or definite PD. After adjusting for confounders (gender, parental social class and parental psychiatric disorder) the results indicated that single-parent family type in childhood was associated with cluster B PDs in adulthood. Being an only child in childhood was associated with cluster A PDs. No special childhood risk factors were found for cluster C PDs. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that single-parent family type at birth and being an only child in the 1960s are associated with PD in adulthood. Further studies are needed to explore the psychosocial aspects of family environment which may nowadays promote vulnerability to PDs in adulthood.     

Circadian preference and sleep timing from childhood to adolescence in relation to genetic variants from a genome-wide association study

ObjectiveRecent genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have revealed new genetic variants behind self-reported individual circadian preference, a distinct biological trait that is fairly stable during adulthood. In this study we analyze whether these genetic variants associate with objectively measured sleep timing from childhood to adolescence, over a nine-year period, with self-reported circadian preference during late adolescence.MethodsThe participants (N = 100, 61% girls) came from a community cohort from Finland born in 1998. Sleep midpoint was measured with actigraphy at 8, 12 and 17 years. Circadian preference was self-reported at the age of 17 years. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were extracted at 12 years of age from the Illumina OmniExpress Exome 1.2 bead array data. Weighted polygenic risk scores (PRSs) were calculated based on top SNPs from a recent GWAS for morningness–eveningness in an adult population.ResultsThe PRS for circadian preference towards morningness was associated with earlier sleep midpoint from childhood to adolescence. When the time points were analyzed separately, the association between genetic tendency towards morning preference and earlier sleep midpoint was strongest among the 17-year-olds. Furthermore, the shift towards later sleep rhythm from early to late adolescence was milder for those with a higher PRS for morning preference. PRS for morning preference was also associated with self-reported circadian preference towards morningness in late adolescence.ConclusionOur results suggest that genetic variants found for circadian preference in adults are already associated with objective sleep timing during childhood and adolescence, and predict individual developmental sleep trajectories from childhood onwards.     

Parental divorce and depression in young adulthood: adolescents' closeness to parents and self-esteem as mediating factor

Palosaari U, Aro H, Laippala P. Parental divorce and depression in young adulthood: adolescents' closeness to parents and self-esteem as mediating factor. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996: 93: 20–26. © Munksgaard 1996. The mediating factors between childhood experience of parental divorce and subsequent depression in young adulthood were assessed in a follow-up study of one Finnish urban age cohort from the age of 16 to 22 (n = 1656). Depression was found to be more common among the offspring of divorced families. Low self-esteem at age 16 was an indicator of vulnerability to depression in young adulthood irrespective of family background or gender. Among girls the long-term impact of divorce was mediated via low self-esteem and lack of closeness to father. When the relationship with the father was close, no excess risk of depression was found among girls from divorced families. Conversely, in boys no statistical connection between low self-esteem or unsatisfactory relationship with parents and depression after parental divorce was found.     

A mediational analysis of adverse experiences in childhood and quality of life in adulthood

ObjectivesThis study examined associations of three prevalent adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) – parents'' problematic alcohol use (PPAU), parental separation/divorce, and lack of support from a trusted adult–with adult quality of life (QoL), and potential mediators of associations.MethodsData were from a representative survey (N = 28,047) in Norway that assessed ACEs, QoL, and potential mediators: enduring perceptions of childhood hardships (Difficult Childhood Questionnaire; DCQ), current mental distress, and current social isolation. Latent regression analyses examined potential mediators.ResultsEach ACE was positively associated with perceptions of childhood as difficult (higher DCQ scores). In turn, ACEs were negatively associated with adult QoL through indirect effects. Lack of support from a trusted adult had the strongest negative association with adult QoL, compared to PPAU and parental separation/divorce. The association between the ACEs and QoL was explained through the mediators of mental distress and social isolation.ConclusionsOf the examined ACEs, lack of support from a trusted adult had the strongest negative impact on adult QoL. Adult support to vulnerable children could potentially ameliorate adult consequences of ACEs. In addition, adults reporting difficulties due to childhood adversities may benefit from therapeutic interventions that address both psychological distress and isolation.     

Adolescent Self-control Predicts Midlife Hallucinatory Experiences: 40-Year Follow-up of a National Birth Cohort

Background: Associations between self-control in adolescence and adult mental health are unclear in the general population; to our knowledge, no study has investigated self-control in relation to psychotic-like symptoms. Aims: To investigate the relationship between adolescent self-control and the midlife mental health outcomes of anxiety and depression symptoms and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs), controlling for the effect of adolescent conduct and emotional problems and for parental occupational social class and childhood cognition. Methods: A population-based sample, the MRC National Survey of Health and Development (the British 1946 birth cohort) was contacted 23 times between ages 6 weeks and 53 years. Teachers completed rating scales to assess emotional adjustment and behaviors, from which factors measuring self-control, behavioral, and emotional problems were extracted. At age 53 years, PLEs were self-reported by 2918 participants using 4 items from the Psychosis Screening Questionnaire; symptoms of anxiety and depression were assessed using the scaled version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). Results: After adjustment for the above covariates, poor adolescent self-control was associated with the presence of PLEs in adulthood, specifically hallucinatory experiences at age 53 years, even after adjustment for GHQ-28 scores. Conclusions: Lower self-control in adolescence is a risk factor for hallucinatory experiences in adulthood.Key words: self-control, adolescent, psychotic-like experiences, longitudinal, conduct problems     

Prenatal growth,postnatal growth and trait anxiety in late adulthood – the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study

Lahti J, Räikkönen K, Pesonen A‐K, Heinonen K, Kajantie E, Forsén T, Osmond C, Barker DJP, Eriksson JG. Prenatal growth, postnatal growth and trait anxiety in late adulthood – the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study. Objective: Trait anxiety may predispose to anxiety disorders and cardiovascular events. We tested whether prenatal growth or postnatal growth from birth to 11 years of age and in adulthood predict trait anxiety in late adulthood. Method: Women (n = 951) and men (n = 753) reported trait anxiety using the Spielberger Trait Anxiety Scale at an average age of 63.4 years and growth was estimated from records. Results: Higher trait anxiety was predicted by smaller body size at birth, in infancy and in adulthood. Moreover, faster growth particularly from seven to 11 years of age and slower growth between 11 and 63 years predicted higher trait anxiety. Conclusion: We found a pattern of pre‐ and postnatal growth that predisposed to higher trait anxiety in late adulthood. This pattern resembles that found to increase the risk of cardiovascular events and, thus, points to a shared common origin in a suboptimal prenatal and childhood developmental milieu.     

Is developmental timing of trauma exposure associated with depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adulthood?

BackgroundTrauma exposure is a known risk factor for psychopathology. However, the impact of the developmental timing of exposure remains unclear. This study examined the effect of age at first trauma exposure on levels of adult depressive and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms.MethodsLifetime trauma exposure (including age at first exposure and frequency), current psychiatric symptoms, and sociodemographic information were collected during interviews with adults participating in a study at a public urban hospital in Atlanta, GA. Multiple linear regression models assessed the association between timing of first trauma exposure, classified as early childhood (ages 0–5), middle childhood (ages 6–10), adolescence (ages 11–18), and adulthood (ages 19+), on adult psychopathology in 2892 individuals.ResultsParticipants exposed to trauma (i.e., child maltreatment, other interpersonal violence, non-interpersonal violence, and other events) at any age had higher depressive and PTSD symptoms compared to their unexposed peers. However, participants first exposed to child maltreatment during early childhood had depression and PTSD symptoms that were about twice as high as those exposed during later developmental stages. This association was detected even after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, exposure to other trauma types, and frequency of exposure. Participants first exposed during middle childhood to other interpersonal violence also had depressive symptoms scores that were about twice as high as those first exposed during adulthood.ConclusionsTrauma exposure at different ages may differentially impact depressive and PTSD symptoms in adulthood. More detailed examination of timing of trauma exposure is warranted to aid in identifying sensitive periods in development.