组织工程化异体骨复合BMP和自体骨髓治疗股骨头缺血性坏死

目的探讨非细胞型组织工程化异体骨复合骨形态发生蛋白(BMP)和自体骨髓植入治疗青壮年股骨头缺血性坏死的疗效。方法首先进行股骨头髓芯减压,彻底刮除死骨。将异体松质骨混合bBMP和自体骨髓植入死骨刮除区,部分脱钙冻干异体腓骨植入髓芯减压孔道,直接支撑股骨头病变区软骨下骨。采用该方法治疗64例(78髋)股骨头缺血性坏死患者。结果所有患者均获随访,随访时间3个月～6年,平均44个月。随访3年以上28例(36髋),其中18例(22髋)FicatⅠ、Ⅱ期病例,患髋无明显疼痛及功能受限,CT显示形成密度较高的新骨,病变范围及程度无发展。4例(6髋)FicatⅠ、Ⅱ期病例,患髋症状无加重,但病变进展了一期。6例(8髋)FicatⅢ期病例,2例无明显疼痛及活动受限,4例因症状无明显改善而行人工关节置换术。结论异体腓骨可提供直接的机械支撑力,阻止股骨头病变发展和塌陷;BMP可诱导骨髓和异体骨以增强其成骨能力。异体骨复合BMP和自体骨髓可作为治疗青壮年FicatⅠ、Ⅱ期股骨头缺血性坏死的一种选择。     

吻合血管腓骨移植治疗股骨头坏死疗效观察

目的评价吻合血管游离腓骨移植治疗股骨头坏死的临床疗效。方法1993年7月至2005年10月我们采用吻合血管游离腓骨移植治疗股骨头坏死126髋,其中FicatⅠ期30髋,FicatⅡ期65髋,FicatⅢ期24髋,FicatⅣ期7髋。手术切开髋关节囊,切除股骨头周边增生的骨赘和炎性反应的滑膜组织,将股骨颈前外侧凿成与腓骨外径相应的骨槽,C臂X线机监视下沿骨槽深达股骨头软骨下区,凿刮骨坏死囊变组织,取髂骨松质骨填塞,将游离腓骨插入股骨头骨洞内,嵌入股骨颈骨槽内,螺丝钉或克氏针固定,吻合腓骨动静脉与旋股外动静脉。结果随访1-10年,优良率达82.5%。结论该手术可在直视下彻底清除坏死囊变组织和减压,同时植入新鲜松质骨,为坏死区再血管化清除障碍。植入的带血管游离腓骨可增加股骨头部的血供和支撑作用,防止股骨头进一步塌陷。此术式可用于Ficat、和部分期病例。     

腓骨移植联合红骨髓与骨碎屑骨泥填充治疗股骨头坏死

目的 评价腓骨移植联合红骨髓与骨碎屑骨泥填充治疗股骨头坏死的近期疗效. 方法 2006年3月至2012年3月,采用关节囊外吻合血管游离腓骨移植联合红骨髓与骨碎屑骨泥填充治疗股骨头坏死48髋病例,48髋按Ficat分期分为4组:Ⅰ期12髋、Ⅱ期24髋、Ⅲ期8髋、Ⅳ期4髋,对各期术前、术后最近一次Harris评分变化,Harris评分大于80所占比例、X线片改善、稳定、恶化以及人工关节置换率进行统计学分析(SAS3.0软件包),Harris评分用(x)±s表示.各组手术前后Harris评分均数比较用配对t检验;各组Harris评分80分以上的百分率、X线片稳定或改善的百分率、以及转为人工关节置换的百分率比较用Fisher确切检验,检验水准均为α=0.01. 结果 随访6～48个月,平均30个月,Ficat Ⅰ ～Ⅲ期手术后平均Harris评分有明显改善,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01);而Ⅳ期病例手术前、后平均Harris评分差异无统计学意义;髋关节Harris评分优良率Ficat Ⅰ期100％、Ⅱ期91.6％、Ⅲ期62.5％、Ⅳ期25.0％;各组间Harris评分优良率、术后X线片好转或稳定率以及股骨头幸存率差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01);术后并发(躅)长屈肌挛缩2例. 结论 腓骨移植联合红骨髓与骨碎屑骨泥填充治疗股骨头缺血坏死近期疗效确切;影像学分期是影响疗效的主要因素.     

髓芯减压自体髂骨打压植骨联合骨形态发生蛋白2治疗早中期股骨头坏死疗效观察

目的:观察髓芯减压自体髂骨打压植骨联合骨形态发生蛋白2治疗早中期股骨头坏死的临床疗效。方法:选取股骨头坏死早中期患者38例(52髋),均采用髓芯减压自体髂骨打压植骨联合骨形态发生蛋白2治疗,术后随访9~20个月,中位数12个月。根据手术前后Ficat分期改变及Harris髋关节功能评分评价其疗效。结果:根据Ficat分期法,术前Ⅱ期34髋,术后改变为Ⅰ期33髋,未改变1髋;术前Ⅲ期18髋,术后改变为Ⅱ期10髋,改变为Ⅰ期7髋,未改变1髋。Harris评分:术前(65.74±11.56)分,术后(87.25±12.58)分,手术前后比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:髓芯减压自体髂骨打压植骨联合骨形态发生蛋白2治疗早中期股骨头坏死操作简便,近期疗效确切。     

髓芯减压植骨加异体腓骨支撑治疗早期股骨头缺血性坏死的单中心长期临床疗效研究

背景:股骨头缺血性坏死早期治疗困难,治疗方案缺乏共识,因此探寻一种微创且术后疗效佳的髓芯减压术式,能够有效的改善股骨头坏死患者的生活质量。目的:探讨髓芯减压植骨加异体腓骨移植治疗早期股骨头缺血性坏死疗效。方法:采用髓芯减压植骨加异体腓骨移植术治疗股骨头缺血性坏死患者41例(72髋),年龄22~61岁,平均(40.1±6.9)岁,其中Ⅲc期21髋,Ⅲb期1髋,Ⅱc期49髋,Ⅱb期1髋。术后从临床结果和影像学表现综合评价疗效。结果:9人15髋失访,最终32例57髋纳入研究,其中Ⅲc期16髋,Ⅲb期1髋,Ⅱc期39髋,Ⅱb期1髋,患者随访119~232个月,平均(162.8±6.3)个月;末次随访时10例(14髋)功能差,Harris评分(61.3±4.1)分,且已进展到ARCOⅣ期,其中8例(11髋,Ⅲc期4髋、Ⅱc期7髋)因病情进展分别于术后(38.4±7.2)个月及术后(80.4±4.8)个月行全髋关节置换术;Harris评分由术前(71.6±3.2)分提高到术后(91.6±2.8)分(P=0.031),最终纳入研究的患髋末次随访时手术成功率为80.7%,优良率为75.4%。结论:股骨头髓芯减压植骨加异体腓骨移植术治疗早期股骨头缺血坏死,手术损伤小,术后关节功能恢复快,临床疗效佳,是一种值得推广的治疗早期股骨头缺血性坏死的术式。     

股骨头髓心减压加异体腓骨移植术治疗股骨头坏死

目的探讨股骨头髓心减压加异体腓骨移植术治疗早期股骨头缺血性坏死的疗效。方法1998年6月～2004年8月，采用股骨头髓心减压加异体腓骨移植术治疗Ⅰ～Ⅲ期股骨头缺血性坏死22例39髋，其中男17例，女5例。年龄22～60岁。术前疼痛时间2～12个月，平均6、5个月。所有患者于术前及术后15d，3个月和6个月行双髋关节功能、常规X线片、ECT、CT和MRI检查。结果患者均获随访3～74个月，平均31．4个月。17例临床症状缓解明显，Harris评分从术前平均78分升至术后91．6分。18例X线片显示髋关节形态基本保持完好，无明显坏死进展。ECT、CT和MRI检查均见植骨成骨征象。有2例4髋于1年半后改行人工全髋关节置换术。另有3例4髋症状有所加重，但未行人工关节置换术。结论股骨头髓心减压加异体腓骨移植术治疗早期股骨头缺血性坏死，手术损伤小，术后关节功能2～4周即可恢复或超过术前水平，临床症状改善。其短期疗效肯定，中长期疗效仍需进一步观察。     

中心减压自体骨与BMP植入治疗缺血性股骨头坏死

目的:探讨中心减压自体骨与骨形态发生蛋白(BMP)植入治疗缺血性股骨头坏死的临床疗效。方法:缺血性股骨头坏死36例41髋,男25例29髋,女11例12髋;年龄31~69岁,平均45·5岁。按Ficat分期0期3髋、Ⅰ期19髋、Ⅱ期13髋、Ⅲ期6髋,行中心减压自体骨与BMP植入术。结果:36例患者均获随访,随访时间2~63个月,平均41个月。以广州中医药大学附属医院提出的疗效标准百分法评价治疗效果,优21例,良8例,可4例,差3例。结论:此术式可有效降低骨内压,改善股骨头血供,植入自体松质骨对关节软骨起到有效支撑防止塌陷的作用。BMP诱发组织修复,加快了股骨头骨质修复的过程,适于Ficat分期0~Ⅱ期的早期患者。     

吻合血管的腓骨移植治疗酒精性股骨头坏死21例

目的 评价吻合血管的腓骨移植治疗酒精性股骨头坏死的临床疗效.方法 2003年8月～2008年6月,我科采用吻合血管的腓骨移植治疗FicatⅡ～Ⅳ期的酒精性股骨头坏死21例.结果 术后21例全部获得1～5年的随访,综合评价其优良率为85.7%.结论 吻合血管的腓骨移植治疗酒精性股骨头坏死,对防止FicatⅡ期和Ⅲ期的股骨头进一步塌陷有一定作用.     

椎间孔镜辅助下髓芯减压病灶刮除并植骨治疗Ficat Ⅱ、Ⅲ期股骨头无菌性坏死的可行性分析

目的总结分析椎间孔镜辅助下髓芯减压坏死病灶刮除并植骨治疗FicatⅡ、Ⅲ期股骨头无菌性坏死的临床可行性。方法自2016-08—2017-08采用椎间孔镜辅助下行髓芯减压坏死病灶刮除并植骨治疗FicatⅡ、Ⅲ期股骨头无菌性坏死共12例12髋。结果 12例均获得随访,随访时间14～26(19.11±3.66)个月。术后12周功能评定采用Harris评分:优7髋,良2髋,可2髋,差1髋。末次随访时疼痛VAS评分、Harris评分,较术前明显改善,差异有统计学意义(P 0.05)。结论椎间孔镜下可辨别坏死病灶,能指导铰刀刮除方向、判断减压深度,联合髓芯减压、病灶刮除及自体骨植骨治疗FicatⅡ、Ⅲ期股骨头坏疗效肯定,具备临床应用可行性。     

同种异体螺纹骨笼结合脱钙骨基质治疗成人股骨头缺血性坏死

目的探讨采用同种异体螺纹骨笼结合脱钙骨基质(DBM)治疗早、中期股骨头缺血性坏死(ONFH)的中期随访效果。方法采用同种异体骨支撑架结合DBM治疗40例(60髋)ONFH患者并随访观察。按Ficat分期:Ⅱ期35髋,Ⅲ期25髋。结果 40例(60髋)获随访,时间9年6个月~12年5个月。术后Harris评分为(82.78±10.77),与术前(53.20±15.72)分比较差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。其中优29髋,良20髋,可3髋,差8髋,优良率81.7%。差评的8髋全部行人工全髋关节置换术。结论同种异体螺纹骨笼联合DBM治疗成人ONFH手术损伤小,特别是适合治疗早期ONFH的年轻患者,中期疗效满意,能有效防止股骨头塌陷。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.