Effect of the Food Guide Pyramid on Food Advertising

The purpose of this study was to examine changes in advertising frequency of foods classified into the food group categories of the Food Guide Pyramid and nutrition claims in response to the release of the Pyramid. Using content analysis, food advertisements in selected issues of two culinary magazines (Bon Appetit and Gourmet) and two health-oriented magazines (Cooking Light and Eating Well) were examined in 1991 (n = 403) and 1994 (n = 294), representing the periods before and after the release of the Food Guide Pyramid, respectively. Fruits and vegetables were the least frequently advertised food groups in both magazine categories examined.There was no significant change (p > .05) in the advertising frequency of the food group categories of the Food Guide Pyramid from 1991 to 1994 for either of the two magazine categories. In the culinary magazine category, Consumer-Related and General Health claims increased while all other claims decreased from 1991 to 1994. The advertising frequency of all claim categories remained unchanged from 1991 to 1994 in the health-oriented food magazines. In conclusion, there was little evidence of responsiveness of food advertising to the release of the Food Guide Pyramid in this study.     

Nutrition in food advertising: Content analysis of a canadian women's magazine, 1928–1986

I conducted a content analysis of a women's magazine to explore trends over time in food advertising with particular attention to the emphasis placed on nutrition. I developed and validated a coding form, and coded all food and beverage advertisements (n = 5175) that appeared between 1928 and 1986 in four issues per year of a nationally circulated women's magazine. I characterized advertisements with regard to the type of product represented (e.g., by food group) and with regard to the type of promotional statements used in the advertisement. Results indicated that changes have occurred in the types of products advertised and in the messages used to promote them. Major trends in the types of products advertised included decreased advertising for food ingredients and increased representation of non-nutritious beverages, and of desserts and foods high in fat and sugar. The most common type of promotional message was the consumer-related message (e.g., appeals to taste and convenience). The emphasis of nutrition-related messages changed over time: There were fewer messages about general health and nutrition and basic nutrients, and recently there has been an increase in emphasis on avoiding certain dietary components. I concluded that advertisements in this women's magazine do not portray nutritionally positive food choices to a greater extent than in the past.     

Trends in food advertising to children on free-to-air television in Australia

Objective: The issue of marketing unhealthy food to children and its contribution to childhood obesity has become a highly politicised debate in Australia. The aim of this study was to compare recent television food advertising patterns in 2008 to previously published Australian research on television advertising from 2006 and 2007, to examine any changes following policy debates. Methods: Television broadcasting was recorded for two weekdays and two weekend days between 6:00 and 22:00 in February 2008 for all three commercial television channels. Food advertisements were classified as core/healthy, non‐core/unhealthy or miscellaneous. Television audience data were obtained to determine broadcast periods corresponding to children's peak viewing times. Results: The overall rate of food advertising decreased over time: from seven food advertisements/hour/channel in 2006/07 to five in 2008. However, the relative contribution of non‐core food advertising to overall food advertising remained stable. In 2008, the proportion of food advertisements for non‐core foods was significantly higher during children's peak viewing times (p<0.01). Conclusions and implications: Australian children remain exposed to a disproportionate volume of television advertisements for unhealthy foods on commercial television, which are shown during time periods when the highest numbers of children are watching. Regulations to limit unhealthy food advertising during the time periods when a significant number of children are watching are required.     

The commercial food landscape: outdoor food advertising around primary schools in Australia

Objective: Food marketing is linked to childhood obesity through its influence on children's food preferences, purchase requests and food consumption. We aimed to describe the volume and nature of outdoor food advertisements and factors associated with outdoor food advertising in the area surrounding Australian primary schools. Methods: Forty primary schools in Sydney and Wollongong were selected using random sampling within population density and socio‐economic strata. The area within a 500m radius of each school was scanned and advertisements coded according to pre‐defined criteria, including: food or non‐food product advertisement, distance from the school, size and location. Food advertisements were further categorised as core foods, non‐core foods and miscellaneous drinks (tea and coffee). Results: The number of advertisements identified was 9,151, of which 2,286 (25%) were for food. The number of non‐core food advertisements was 1,834, this accounted for 80% of food advertisements. Soft drinks and alcoholic beverages were the food products most commonly advertised around primary schools (24% and 22% of food advertisements, respectively). Non‐core food products were twice as likely to be advertised close to a primary school (95 non‐core food advertisements per km 2 within 250 m vs. 46 advertisements per km 2 within 250–500 m). Conclusions: The density of non‐core food advertisements within 500 m of primary schools, and the potential for repeated exposure of children to soft drink and alcoholic beverage advertisements in particular, highlights the need for outdoor food marketing policy intervention. Implications: Outdoor advertising is an important food marketing tool that should be considered in future debates on regulation of food marketing to children.     

The extent and nature of "health messages" in magazine food advertising in Australia

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the extent and nature of healthy eating messages Australian consumers are currently exposed through magazine advertising. METHOD: Analysis of healthy eating messages in advertisements found in the top 30 Australian magazines between January and June 2005 was conducted. Advertisements were analysed and classified by source, subject, food category, food type, food occasion, type of claim and disease type. RESULTS: A total of 1,040 advertisements were identified which contained a healthy eating message; after removing duplicates, 390 advertisements were analysed. Culinary and women's magazines contained the greatest number of healthy eating messages. The most frequently occurring food category utilising a health message in an advertisement was dairy and dairy substitutes (71/390), closely followed by fruit and fruit juice (70/390). Overall, 31 advertisements referred to a specific disease, health problem, or risk factor and the most commonly mentioned were heart disease/heart-attack (12) cancer (seven) and diabetes (five). CONCLUSIONS: Majority of healthy eating messages currently advertised are by manufacturers, double that of retailers, with non-commercial sources representing only 2%. Processed foods were the most commonly advertised food form which contained a healthy eating message, this is of concern given the generally low nutritional value of these foods. Overall, there are a large number of advertisements in Australian magazines that contain healthy eating messages that may have the potential to communicate to consumers that there are health benefits associated with the consumption of certain foods. IMPLICATIONS: Future research to assess the accuracy of the information in such advertisements, and to examine consumer interpretations of these health message are important.     

Persuasive food marketing to children: use of cartoons and competitions in Australian commercial television advertisements

While there is a recognized link between high levels of exposure to advertising of unhealthy foods and overweight and obesity among children, there is little research on the extent to which these exposures include persuasive marketing techniques. This study aimed to measure children's exposure to the use of persuasive marketing within television food advertisements. Advertisements broadcast on all three commercial Australian television channels were recorded for an equivalent 1 week period in May 2006 and 2007 (714 h). Food advertisements were analysed for their use of persuasive marketing, including premium offers, such as competitions, and the use of promotional characters, including celebrities and cartoon characters. Advertised foods were categorized as core, non-core or miscellaneous foods. Commercial data were purchased to determine children's peak viewing times and popular programs. A total of 20 201 advertisements were recorded, 25.5% of which were for food. Significantly more food advertisements broadcast during children's peak viewing times, compared to non-peak times, contained promotional characters (P < 0.05) and premium offers (P < 0.001). During programs most popular with children, there were 3.3 non-core food advertisements per hour containing premium offers, compared to 0.2 per hour during programs most popular with adults. The majority of advertisements containing persuasive marketing during all viewing periods were for non-core foods. Persuasive marketing techniques are frequently used to advertise non-core foods to children, to promote children's brand recognition and preference for advertised products. Future debate relating to television advertising regulations must consider the need to restrict the use of persuasive marketing techniques to children.     

Medicalisation of food advertising. Nutrition and health claims in magazine food advertisements 1990–2008

Food advertising increasingly portrays food as a type of medicine. A content analysis of magazine food advertisements in 1990 through 2008 shows that this was manifested with time more in the (a) nutrition claims and (b) health claims made in food advertisements, as well as the (c) food groups and (d) media genres to which nutrition and health claims in food advertising pertained. This so-called “medicalisation” of food advertising may promote images of the body and mind as malfunctioning unless remedied by the use of – advertised – products.     

A Cross-Sectional Prevalence Study of Ethnically Targeted and General Audience Outdoor Obesity-Related Advertising

Context: Commercial marketing is a critical but understudied element of the sociocultural environment influencing Americans'' food and beverage preferences and purchases. This marketing also likely influences the utilization of goods and services related to physical activity and sedentary behavior. A growing literature documents the targeting of racial/ethnic and income groups in commercial advertisements in magazines, on billboards, and on television that may contribute to sociodemographic disparities in obesity and chronic disease risk and protective behaviors. This article examines whether African Americans, Latinos, and people living in low-income neighborhoods are disproportionately exposed to advertisements for high-calorie, low nutrient–dense foods and beverages and for sedentary entertainment and transportation and are relatively underexposed to advertising for nutritious foods and beverages and goods and services promoting physical activities.Methods: Outdoor advertising density and content were compared in zip code areas selected to offer contrasts by area income and ethnicity in four cities: Los Angeles, Austin, New York City, and Philadelphia.Findings: Large variations were observed in the amount, type, and value of advertising in the selected zip code areas. Living in an upper-income neighborhood, regardless of its residents'' predominant ethnicity, is generally protective against exposure to most types of obesity-promoting outdoor advertising (food, fast food, sugary beverages, sedentary entertainment, and transportation). The density of advertising varied by zip code area race/ethnicity, with African American zip code areas having the highest advertising densities, Latino zip code areas having slightly lower densities, and white zip code areas having the lowest densities.Conclusions: The potential health and economic implications of differential exposure to obesity-related advertising are substantial. Although substantive legal questions remain about the government''s ability to regulate advertising, the success of limiting tobacco advertising offers lessons for reducing the marketing contribution to the obesigenicity of urban environments.     

Diet vs. shape content of popular male and female magazines: A dose-response relationship to the incidence of eating disorders?

We hypothesized that the substantial difference in incidence of eating disorders between men and women would be correlated with a similar difference in sociocul-tural norms promoting thinness. The 10 popular magazines most commonly read by young men and young women were examined for advertisements and articles promoting weight loss or shape change. The women's magazines contained 10.5 times as many advertisements and articles promoting weight loss as the men's magazines (p <.005), the same ratio reported from several sources for cases of anorexia nervosa. Men, however, were disproportionately subjected to incentives to change body shape compared to weight loss (p <.01). This study supports the hypothesis that the comparative frequency of eating disorders in males vs. females is more closely related to the differing extent of gender-related reinforcement of related dieting behavior than any known biological parameter. It is plausible that a dose-response relationship exists between sociocultural reinforcements promoting thinness and the incidence of eating disorders in any particular population group.     

Television Food Advertising to Children: A Global Perspective

Objectives. We compared television food advertising to children in several countries.Methods. We undertook a collaboration among 13 research groups in Australia, Asia, Western Europe, and North and South America. Each group recorded programming for 2 weekdays and 2 weekend days between 6:00 and 22:00, for the 3 channels most watched by children, between October 2007 and March 2008. We classified food advertisements as core (nutrient dense, low in energy), noncore (high in undesirable nutrients or energy, as defined by dietary standards), or miscellaneous. We also categorized thematic content (promotional characters and premiums).Results. Food advertisements composed 11% to 29% of advertisements. Noncore foods were featured in 53% to 87% of food advertisements, and the rate of noncore food advertising was higher during children''s peak viewing times. Most food advertisements containing persuasive marketing were for noncore products.Conclusions. Across all sampled countries, children were exposed to high volumes of television advertising for unhealthy foods, featuring child-oriented persuasive techniques. Because of the proven connections between food advertising, preferences, and consumption, our findings lend support to calls for regulation of food advertising during children''s peak viewing times.Excess weight in children is a significant global public health issue: 10% of school-aged children,¹ and a further 22 million children younger than 5 years,² are estimated to be overweight or obese. Although the absolute prevalence of childhood obesity varies between and within countries,³ obesity levels are rising across the globe.⁴Food marketing to children has been recognized as 1 factor contributing to the obesity-promoting environment, and it is considered an important arena for action in the prevention of obesity.⁵ Systematic reviews have found that marketing generates positive beliefs about advertised foods and influences children''s food preferences, purchase requests, and consumption.^6–8 These findings are a concern because advertised foods are typically the antithesis of dietary recommendations.⁹Evidence from psychological research indicates that children, particularly those younger than 8 years, are not fully aware of the persuasive intent of food marketing and tend to accept advertising as truthful, accurate, and unbiased.^8,10 Older children, although they may understand that advertising is intended to sell a product, may not be able to interpret these messages critically.¹⁰Only a few studies have compared international patterns of television food advertising to children. One of these found that food and beverages were the most highly advertised products and that confectionery, presugared breakfast cereals and fast-food restaurants accounted for over half of all food advertisements.¹¹Analyses of persuasive marketing techniques, such as the use of promotional characters and premiums in television advertising from individual countries, have found them to be concentrated in advertisements for unhealthy food products and during the broadcast periods most popular with children. An Australian study found that the rate of unhealthy food advertisements containing premiums was 18 times as high and the rate of advertisements containing promotional characters was twice as high during the most popular children''s programs as during adults'' popular programs.¹²We determined and compared the frequency and nature of television food advertising to children in a range of countries. We also assessed food advertising during children''s peak viewing periods and the use of persuasive marketing techniques.     

Density of outdoor food and beverage advertising around schools in Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia) and Manila (The Philippines) and implications for policy

Children’s exposure to unhealthy food marketing is recognised by leading international health organisations as a probable causal factor for obesity. Outdoor advertising near schools embeds commercial food messages into children’s everyday lives and acts as a cue for food purchases. This project aimed to describe food advertising in the area around schools in two demographically and culturally disparate cities in the Asia Pacific Region. Data on outdoor food advertising were collected from the area within 500?m of 30 primary schools in each of two cities: Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia and Manila, The Philippines. For each food advertisement, information was collected on: distance from the school (within 250 or 500?m); size, setting, type and position of the advertisement; and the food/drink product type promoted (core/healthy, non-core/unhealthy and miscellaneous). Density of advertisements was calculated per 100?m². The density of food advertising was twice as high in the area closest to schools compared to the area further from schools (.9 vs. .5 in Ulaanbaatar and 6.5 vs. 3.3 advertisements per 100?m² in Manila). Almost all food advertisements were for non-core/unhealthy foods/drinks (92% in Ulaanbaatar and 85% in Manila), and soft drinks were most frequently promoted. Children in Ulaanbaatar and Manila are exposed to large numbers of advertisements for unhealthy foods/drinks on their way to and from school, and these are particularly clustered within the immediate vicinity of schools. Clear directions for policy development are outlined to reduce children’s exposure to this marketing, including restricting the placement and content of outdoor advertising.     

Health claims for food made in Australian magazine advertisements

Aim: The aim was to describe the level of health claims being used in magazine advertisements, the categories of foods carrying health claims, and the types of benefits being claimed for particular foods or food ingredients. Data were compared with similar studies of food labels and Internet sites to reflect the impact of rule governance of the different media and highlight implications for the current proposed changes in food standards legislation. Methods: From January to June 2005, a survey of all print advertisements for food in Australia's 30 top‐selling magazines was undertaken. The results were compared with those from a 1996 survey of health claims in Australian magazines and more recent surveys of claims for food on product labels and on Internet sites. Results: The survey found that 29.5% of 390 advertisements for food carried a health claim. Many of the claims were high‐level claims (29%) or therapeutic claims (8%), which are not permitted by current food standards. The most common benefits being promoted related to cardiovascular disease, energy, cancer and weight control, and most claims referred to the effect of the whole food, rather than specific ingredients. Results were similar to previous studies of food labels and Internet sites. Conclusion: Health claims are being used widely in the print advertising of food products in Australia. Moreover, the presence of high‐level and therapeutic claims in this media bears significant implications for the implementation of rules governing health claims on foods across the different media.     

Convenience food use in households with male food preparers

Data from the household portion of the 1977-78 USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey were used to determine expenditures for convenience and nonconvenience foods and nutrients from those foods. Households with male food preparers accounted for approximately 15% of the survey population, frequently included only one person, and had a larger proportion of young and elderly heads of household than households with a female food preparer. As a group, the foods most frequently reported in households with male food preparers were quite similar to those used by households with female food preparers. Male food preparers spent less of the food dollar on nonconvenience items than did other food preparers, and conversely they spent more on complex and manufactured convenience foods. Total food energy and nutrient levels per nutrition unit of the foods used by households with male food preparers were significantly higher than those in households with female food preparers for all nutrients except thiamin and riboflavin. However, the values were more than 100% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance values except for vitamin B-6 for both sample groups.     

The relationship between television food advertisements recalled and actual foods consumed by children

Introduction : A probable influence on children's food choices is television advertising, although there is very little information on the relationship between food advertisements shown and foods consumed by British children. Methods : Forty-four children aged 9–11 years, from private and state schools in Newcastle-upon-Tyne from a variety of social class areas were interviewed to determine which television advertisements for food they remembered. The study sample was small and not known to be representative. Brand-specific information on food intake was obtained using a 3-day food diary. Parents were interviewed regarding food requests received. Spearman's correlation was carried out between the number of foods for which advertisements could be remembered and the number of times these foods were consumed. Results : A relationship was found between the foods for which the children could remember the advertisement and the number of these foods which the child ate ( r =0.58). For individual food groups the relationship between foods remembered and foods consumed was strongest for soft drinks ( r =0.68) and crisps and savoury snacks ( r =0.61). Four out of 10 of the most frequently requested foods were amongst the 10 most frequently recalled television food advertisements. Conclusions : The results support the hypothesis that television advertisements influence food choice.     

Placing the Burden on the Individual: Overweight and Obesity in African American and Mainstream Women's Magazines

One third of all U.S. adult women, and more than 75% of African American women, are overweight or obese. This study examined overweight and obesity editorial content (N?=?406) in three mainstream and three African American women's magazines between 1984 and 2004. Content analysis was used to determine which strategies were suggested regarding diet, overweight, and obesity, which components of social cognitive theory were offered (behavior, person, or environment), and whether or not there were differences in the genres. The results suggest that although a wide range of strategies were being offered, the vast majority were behavioral changes with an individual solution focus. Although African American and mainstream magazines suggested many of the same strategies, nearly half more frequently appeared in one or the other genre. Mainstream magazines were twice as likely to offer the limiting or eliminating of fast food or junk food, eating more protein, eating lower-fat foods, and eating smaller portions. African American magazines were much more likely to cover fad diets and to suggest readers rely on God or faith in their diet plans. The average number of strategies offered per article was significantly higher in mainstream than in African American magazines.     

Nine out of 10 food advertisements shown during Saturday morning children's television programming are for foods high in fat, sodium, or added sugars, or low in nutrients

A 2005 review by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies concluded that food marketing influences children's food preferences, consumption, and health. Given the powerful influence of marketing on children's diets, this cross-sectional study examined the types of foods, the nutritional quality of those foods, and the marketing techniques and messages used in food advertising during Saturday morning children's television programming. During 27.5 hours of programming in May 2005, 49% of advertisements shown were for food (281 food advertisements out of 572 total advertisements). The most commonly advertised food categories were ready-to-eat breakfast cereal and cereal bars (27% of all food advertisements), restaurants (19% of food advertisements), and snack foods (18% of food advertisements). Ninety-one percent of food advertisements were for foods or beverages high in fat, sodium, or added sugars or were low in nutrients. Cartoon characters were used in 74% of food advertisements, and toy or other giveaways were used in 26% of food advertisements. About half of food advertisements contained health/nutrition or physical activity messages and 86% of food advertisements contained emotional appeals. This study provides food and nutrition professionals with information about the amount and types of food children are encouraged to eat during Saturday morning television programming. The findings can help food and nutrition professionals counsel children about healthful eating and/or develop programs or policies to balance those advertisements with healthful eating messages.     

Food advertising targeted at school-age children: a content analysis

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the contents of food and beverage advertisements are associated with physical activity and athletic ability more often than those for toys and games, and to describe persuasive techniques used in advertising food and beverages to children. DESIGN: A content analysis of advertisements during 31 hours of school-age children's television programming. ANALYSIS: Chi-square tests were used to examine differences in depictions of physical activity. Types of persuasive techniques were tabulated and, within each advertisement, categorized as implicit or explicit. RESULTS: Food and beverage ads depicted children engaged in physical activity and associated the advertised product with athletic ability significantly more than toy and game ads. Food was most often associated with fun and good times (75%), pleasant taste (54.1%), being hip or cool (43.2%), and feelings of happiness (43.2%). IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE: These findings raise concern that greater levels of physical activity and athletic ability in food advertising, in which the product is frequently associated with fun, may promote overconsumption, especially of calorie-dense, nutrient-poor foods. Further research would elucidate whether this concern is warranted. On the other hand, since food advertisements are presumably effective, health educators can use these techniques to formulate messages for nutritious foods. This concept should be tested with well-designed interventions.     

The 1990 revision of the FDA total diet study

Information from the 1987–88 USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS) was used to revise the food list and diets of the Food and Drug Administration's Total Diet Study. The 1990 Total Diet Study contains 265 core foods that will be used to estimate contaminant and nutrient intakes for 14 age-sex categories. The core foods were selected by aggregating the foods consumed by the selected age-sex categories into 265 groups. A food within each group was selected to represent the group. For each age-sex category, the daily gram weight intake of each food within each group was assigned to the core food. These estimates of daily intakes of the 265 foods represent approximately the same weight and caloric intake of average diets for the 14 age-sex categories using 3,571 foods of the NFCS database. Nutrient intakes of diets calculated on the basis of the 3,571 foods and the 265 Total Diet Study foods were similar.