Surgical Complications Associated With Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy: Results From a Prospective International Cooperative Group Trial

Background American College of Surgeons Oncology Group Z0010 is a prospective multicenter trial designed to evaluate the prognostic significance of micrometastases in the sentinel lymph nodes and bone marrow aspirates of women with early-stage breast cancer. Surgical complications associated with the sentinel lymph node biopsy surgical procedure are reported. Methods Eligible patients included women with clinical T1/2N0M0 breast cancer. Surgical outcomes were available at 30 days and 6 months after surgery for 5327 patients. Patients who had a failed sentinel node mapping (n = 71, 1.4%) or a completion lymph node dissection (n = 814, 15%) were excluded. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify predictors for the measured surgical complications. Results In patients who received isosulfan blue dye alone (n = 783) or a combination of blue dye and radiocolloid (n = 4192), anaphylaxis was reported in .1% of subjects (5 of 4975). Other complications included axillary wound infection in 1.0%, axillary seroma in 7.1%, and axillary hematoma in 1.4% of subjects. Only increasing age and an increasing number of sentinel lymph nodes removed were significantly associated with an increasing incidence of axillary seroma. At 6 months, 8.6% of patients reported axillary paresthesias, 3.8% had a decreased upper extremity range of motion, and 6.9% demonstrated proximal upper extremity lymphedema (change from baseline arm circumference of >2 cm). Significant predictors for surgical complications at 6 months were a decreasing age for axillary paresthesias and increasing body mass index and increasing age for upper extremity lymphedema. Conclusions This study provides a prospective assessment of the sentinel lymph node biopsy procedure, as performed by a wide range of surgeons, demonstrating a low complication rate.     

Axillary Reverse Mapping (ARM): A New Concept to Identify and Enhance Lymphatic Preservation

Background Variations in arm lymphatic drainage put the arm lymphatics at risk for disruption during axillary lymph node surgery. Mapping the drainage of the arm with blue dye (axillary reverse mapping, ARM) decreases the likelihood of disruption of lymphatics and subsequent lymphedema. Methods This institutional review board (IRB)-approved study from May to October 2006 involved patients undergoing SLNB and/or ALND. Technetium sulfur colloid (4 mL) was injected in the subareolar plexus and 2–5 mL of blue dye intradermally was injected in the ipsilateral upper extremity (ARM). Data were collected on variations in lymphatic drainage that impacted SLNB or ALND, successful identification and protection of the arm lymphatics, any crossover between a hot breast node and a blue arm node, and occurrence of lymphedema. Results Of the 40 patients undergoing surgery for breast cancer, 18 required an ALND, with a median age of 49.7 years old. Fourteen patients had a SLNB + ALND, and four patients had ALND alone. In 100% of patients, all breast SLNs were hot but not blue, and the false negative rate was 0. In 11 of 18 ALNDs (61%) blue lymphatics or blue nodes were identified in the axilla. In the initial seven cases with positive lymph nodes in the axilla, the blue node draining from the arm was biopsied and all were negative. Conclusions ARM identified significant lymphatic variations draining the upper extremities and facilitated preservation in all but one case. ARM added to present-day ALND and SLNB further defines the axilla and may be useful to prevent lymphedema. Supported by the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Clinical Fellowship and the Arkansas Breast Cancer Act     

The Effect of Providing Information about Lymphedema on the Cognitive and Symptom Outcomes of Breast Cancer Survivors

Background  

Despite recent advances in breast cancer treatment, breast cancer related lymphedema (BCRL) continues to be a significant problem for many survivors. Some BCRL risk factors may be largely unavoidable, such as mastectomy, axillary lymph node dissection (ALND), or radiation therapy. Potentially avoidable risk factors unrelated to breast cancer treatment include minor upper extremity infections, injury or trauma to the arm, overuse of the limb, and air travel. This study investigates how providing information about BCRL affects the cognitive and symptomatic outcome of breast cancer survivors.     

Safety of elective hand surgery following axillary lymph node dissection for breast cancer

The development of lymphedema is the most feared complication shared by breast cancer survivors undergoing hand surgery after prior axillary lymph node dissection (ALND). Traditionally, these patients are advised to avoid any interventional procedures in the ipsilateral upper extremity. However, the appropriateness of some of these precautions was recently challenged by some surgeons claiming that elective hand operations can be safely performed in these patients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate our experience and determine the safety of elective hand operations in breast cancer survivors. The medical records of patients operated for different hand conditions after prior breast surgery and ALND at our institution between 1983 and 2002 were reviewed. The techniques and preventive measures performed, use of antibiotics, and upper extremity complications associated with the operations were analyzed. Overall, we operated on 27 patients after prior ALND performed for breast cancer. Follow-up was available for 25 patients. Four patients had pre-existing lymphedema. The surgical technique used was similar to that performed in patients without prior ALND and antibiotic prophylaxis was not given. Delayed wound healing was observed in one patient and finger joint stiffness in another. Two patients with pre-existing lymphedema developed temporary worsening of their condition. None of the patients developed new lymphedema. The results of the present study support the few previous studies, suggesting that hand surgery can be safely performed in patients with prior ALND. Based on these findings, the appropriateness of the rigorous precautions and prohibitions regarding the care and use of the ipsilateral upper extremity may need to be reconsidered.     

Treatment of upper limb lymphedema with combination of liposuction, myocutaneous flap transfer, and lymph-fascia grafting: a preliminary study

Treatment of obstructive extremity lymphedema remains a challenge in reconstructive surgery, since none of the varieties of procedures have been demonstrated a reliable resolution for the lymphedema. In this report, we present the preliminary results of treatment of severe upper extremity lymphedema with combined liposuction, latissimus myocutaneous flap transfer, and lymph-fascia grafting in 11 patients. All patients had histories of radical mastectomy, irradiation therapy for breast cancer, and frequent onsets of erysipelas. Postoperative measurements in an average of 26 months follow up showed that significant decrease of circumferences of the arms on all levels at surgery side were achieved. The onsets of erysipelas were also reduced. There was no chronic lymphedema found in the donor leg after harvest of the lymph-fascia graft. The results suggest the strategy of liposuction, latissimus myocutaneous flap transfer, and lymph-fascia grafting may provide a useful method for treatment of the chronic upper extremity lymphedema with severe axillary scar contracture.     

Update on Post‐mastectomy Lymphedema Management

Lymphedema is a chronic, progressive condition caused by an imbalance of lymphatic flow. Upper extremity lymphedema has been reported in 16–40% of breast cancer patients following axillary lymph node dissection. Furthermore, lymphedema following sentinel lymph node biopsy alone has been reported in 3.5% of patients. While the disease process is not new, there has been significant progress in the surgical care of lymphedema that can offer alternatives and improvements in management. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive update and overview of the current advances and surgical treatment options for upper extremity lymphedema.     

乳腺癌改良根治术后上肢淋巴水肿与腋窝淋巴结阳性率的相关性分析

目的探讨分析乳腺癌改良根治术后上肢淋巴水肿与腋窝淋巴结阳性率的相关性。 方法对2014年11月至2016年11月进行改良根治术治疗的112例乳腺癌患者进行回顾性研究,依据周径测量法对患者淋巴水肿状况进行测量,将未出现水肿患者作为对照组,出现水肿患者列入水肿组,应用SPSS18.0进行分析,对两组患者上肢淋巴水肿与腋窝淋巴结阳性率进行Logistic单因素与多因素分析,两组患者术后上肢淋巴水肿症状对比采用χ²检验,P<0.05差异有统计学意义。 结果经单因素分析结果显示,患者体质指数、淋巴结转移、术后并发症、瘤体大小、放射治疗与上肢淋巴水肿、腋窝淋巴结阳性率有关(P<0.05);经多因素分析上肢淋巴水肿的独立危险因素为：体质指数、年龄、放射治疗(P<0.05);通过对比,水肿组上肢肿胀感与沉重感发生率显著高于对照组(P<0.05)。 结论导致乳腺癌患者术后出现上肢淋巴水肿的独立危险因素诸多,应当对出现的危险因素给予高度重视,采取相应措施来降低上肢淋巴水肿的发生率。     

基于Bevilacqua模型的乳腺癌保乳术患者术后淋巴水肿风险预测的临床研究

目的验证Bevilacqua乳腺癌术后淋巴水肿风险预测模型的临床适用性及可行性。方法回顾性分析2010年1月至2015年12月203例乳腺癌患者临床资料,临床数据分析使用统计学软件SPSS 24.0。Cox回归模型分析乳腺癌患者术后发生上肢淋巴水肿的危险因素,以P<0.05为有统计学意义;绘制ROC曲线,以曲线下面积检验模型预测效果;应用Hosmere-Lemeshow检验评估预测值与实际值的校准程度,以P>0.05为预测模型校准能力较好,预测与实际没有区别。结果所有患者随访共计62~86个月,中位随访时间70个月。术后5年内共发生上肢淋巴水肿患者45例(22.2%)。Cox回归模型分析结果显示,高身体质量指数(BMI)、接受过新辅助化疗、全腋窝淋巴结清扫、接受过放疗是上肢淋巴水肿的独立危险因素。Becilacqua上肢淋巴水肿风险预测模型ROC曲线分析结果显示,模型AUC值为0.711,95%CI(0.651~0.760),有较好的的预测效果。Hosmer-Lemeshow检验结果显示,风险预测模型预测风险与实际无明显差异(P=0.262),校准能力较好,与实际差别不大。结论Bevilacqua术后6个月淋巴水肿风险预测模型的准确性及适用性较高,可用于临床对乳腺癌保乳术后淋巴水肿的预测,可为预防淋巴水肿的发生制定干预决策提供参考。     

薄层血管化腹股沟淋巴结皮瓣移植联合反向淋巴显影在继发性上肢淋巴水肿手术中的应用

目的 探讨薄层血管化腹股沟淋巴结皮瓣移植联合反向淋巴显影在继发性上肢淋巴水肿手术中的应用效果。方法 2019年7月至2020年9月,应用吲哚菁绿、美蓝双染法引导的反向淋巴显影术,制备薄层游离血管化腹股沟淋巴结皮瓣,切取后移植于患侧上肢,治疗乳腺癌术后继发性淋巴水肿患者5例。皮瓣约10 cm×5 cm大小,平均厚度约0.7 cm,切取供区淋巴结约2～3枚,术后随访7～15个月。结果 5例皮瓣存活良好,淋巴结均存活。术后随访显示,患肢臂围均于1.5个月后出现明显缩小,供区无并发症。结论 联合反向淋巴显影技术完成的薄层血管化淋巴结游离皮瓣移植治疗继发性上肢淋巴水肿疗效优良,明显改善患肢臃肿外形。     

Chemotherapy port related lymphedema after axillary lymph node dissection

The Mascagni lymphatic pathway comprises superficial channels along the clavicle that drain upper extremity lymph. A 65 year-old woman with recurrent left breast cancer presented with a non-functioning chemotherapy port in the right deltopectoral groove. She had undergone right mastectomy with axillary lymph node dissection (ALND). After port removal and wound closure she developed right upper extremity lymphedema. Patients who have undergone ALND may depend solely on this pathway for upper extremity lymphatic drainage.Level of evidence: level V     

Time-course of arm lymphedema and potential risk factors for progression of lymphedema after breast conservation treatment for early stage breast cancer

Abstract: The objective of this study was to describe the progression of arm lymphedema (ALE) after the initial presentation among patients receiving breast conservation therapy for early stage breast cancer and to identify potential risk factors contributing to ALE progression. The study sample was the 266 stage I or II breast cancer patients with documented ALE who underwent breast conservation therapy that included lumpectomy, axillary staging followed by radiation therapy. ALE were graded according to a difference of 0.5–2 cm (mild), 2.1–3 cm (moderate), and >3 cm (severe) in the circumference between the upper extremities for the treated and untreated sides. ALE at presentation was scored as mild, moderate, and severe in 109 (41%), 125 (47%), and 32 (12%) patients, respectively. One third of patients with ALE progressed to a more severe grade of lymphedema at 5 years of follow‐up. Age older than 65 years at the time of breast cancer treatment was associated with higher risk of ALE progression when compared 65 year age or younger (p = 0.04). The patients who had regional lymph node irradiation including posterior axillary boost were at higher risk of lymphedema progression than the patients treated with whole breast irradiation only (p = 0.001). Progression of ALE is a common occurrence. The current study provides support for the utility of routine arm measurements after breast cancer treatment to facilitate timely diagnosis and treatment of ALE.     

乳腺癌外科治疗中值得关注的若干问题

伴随乳腺癌基础研究的进步,涉及肿瘤化疗、内分泌治疗和靶向药物治疗已经获得共识。作为重要的治疗手段之一,外科手术同样有原则,也存在争议需要讨论。笔者复习文献介绍了包括NSABP试验及NCCN有关的外科治疗指南。并重点针对锁骨上淋巴结活检与清扫的适应证与危险、前哨淋巴结检测的规范方法、乳腺癌手术后上肢淋巴水肿的诊治、乳腺癌肝脏及肺转移灶的外科手术切除现状以及乳腺癌术后即刻重建合并症等问题进行了讨论。     

Treatment of various secondary lymphedemas by microsurgical lymph vessel transplantation

Chronic lymphedema is a debilitating complication of cancer diagnosis and therapy and poses many challenges for health care professionals. It remains a poorly understood condition that has the potential to occur after any intervention affecting lymph node drainage mechanism. Microsurgical lymph vessel transplantation is increasingly recognized as a promising method for bypassing the obstructed lymph pathways and promoting long-term reduction of edema in the affected limb. A detailed review of 14 patients with postoperative lymphedema treated with autologous lymph vessel transplantation between October 2005 and November 2009 was performed. In this report, the authors gave an account of their experience in utilizing this operative method to alleviate secondary lymphedema including upper limb, lower limb, genital, and facial edemas. Lymph vessel transplantation enhanced lymphatic drainage in patients with secondary lymphedema. In the upper and lower extremities, three patients had completed symptomatic recovery and another nine patients achieved reasonable reduction of lymphedema, four of these needed no further lymph drainage or compression garments and the remaining maintained their improvement with further decongestive therapy with or without compression garments. The patients with facial and genital edemas also experienced significant symptomatic improvement. The authors were able to establish long-term patency of the lymph vessel anastomosis by magnetic resonance lymphangiography.     

逆向腋淋巴显影技术在乳腺癌患者中的临床运用及上肢回流淋巴结的分布与转移特点分析

目的研究逆向腋淋巴显影技术(ARM)在乳腺癌患者中的临床运用,分析乳腺癌患者上肢回流淋巴结的分布与转移特点。方法前瞻性选择2017年6月至2020年2月期间接受外科手术治疗的乳腺癌女性患者130例,所有患者均行ARM,且均为初次手术者。采用SPSS23.0进行统计学分析。术中上臂直径以(±s)表示,采用t检验;上肢回流淋巴结的转移单因素分析采用χ²检验分析,多因素分析采用Logistic回归分析,P<0.05差异有统计学意义。结果122例患者中501枚上肢回流淋巴结追踪成功,成功率为93.8%,A区和B区分别追踪327枚和106枚,共占83.1%,明显高于其他区域(P<0.05);而上肢回流淋巴结的行走方向以腋静脉、第二肋间臂神经、胸背神经血管束、背阔肌前缘以及前锯肌为界限,主要集中在腋静脉周围;单因素分析显示,患者腋窝淋巴情况、BMI指数、肿瘤分布位置、上臂直径与ARM技术上肢回流淋巴结转移有关(P<0.05),Logistic回归分析进一步表明,腋窝淋巴情况和肿瘤分布位置是ARM术上肢回流淋巴结转移的独立危险因素。结论ARM在乳腺癌手术中可成功定位淋巴结,通过了解淋巴分布位置和行走趋势,可提升淋巴系统保留的完整度,对降低术后淋巴水肿率,提高手术成功率有一定的意义。     

Sentinel lymph node biopsy lowers the rate of lymphedema when compared with standard axillary lymph node dissection

Arm edema occurs in 20 to 30 per cent of patients who undergo axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) for carcinoma of the breast. Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) in lieu of ALND for staging of breast cancer significantly lowers this morbidity. We hypothesized that SLNB would have a lower lymphedema rate than conventional axillary dissection. Patients who underwent SLNB were compared with those who underwent level I and II axillary node dissection. A total of 125 patients were evaluated with 77 patients who underwent SLNB and 48 patients who underwent ALND. The arm circumference 10 cm above and 10 cm below the olecranon process was measured on both arms. In this series a difference in arm circumference greater than 3 cm between the operated and nonoperated side was defined as significant for lymphedema. Lymphedema was seen in two of 77 (2.6%) patients in the SLNB group as compared with 13 of 48 (27%) ALND patients. Given the above data patients who underwent sentinel lymph node biopsy show a significantly lower rate of lymphedema than those who had axillary lymph node dissection. This has an important impact on long-term postoperative management of patients with breast cancer.     

吲哚菁绿联合亚甲蓝示踪乳腺癌前哨淋巴结活检术的远期安全性研究

目的 观察吲哚菁绿联合亚甲蓝示踪乳腺癌前哨淋巴结活检术的远期安全性.方法 选取在佛山市南海区妇幼保健院2017年6月至2018年6月收治腋窝临床阴性的40例乳腺癌患者,均接受吲哚菁绿联合亚甲蓝示踪乳腺癌前哨淋巴结活检术(sentinel lymph nodes biopsy,SLNB)治疗,并进行长期随访至2021年6...     

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??Prevention strategies and treatment principles of upper limb lymphedema after breast cancer operation ZHANG Bao-ning. Cancer Hospital Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100021, China
Abstract The incidence of upper limb lymphedema was 21.4% among breast cancer cases performed operation reported in prospective studies and the rate had a geographic variation worldwide. Surgeons should pay attention to the prevention of lymphedema for breast cancer patients. Preventive strategies include standardized operation, radiotherapy, functional exercise and life attentions. Treatment options include conservative treatment, drug and surgical therapies. Surgeries are to reduce lymphetic system load, such as excision of lesion and negative pressure suction technique; to promote lymphetic drainage, such as article fascia drainage, retinal drainage and pedicle flap drainage; and to reconstruct lymphetic channels, such as lymphetic venous anastomosis, lymphetic vessel grafting, vein replacing lymphetic vessel transplantation, and lymph node transplantation. However, the efficacy is unsustainable and hetergeneous. The therapy should focus on early stage, sustainability, integration and individualization.     

乳腺癌外科治疗中值得关注的若干问题

伴随乳腺癌基础研究的进步,涉及肿瘤化疗、内分泌治疗和靶向药物治疗已经获得共识.作为重要的治疗手段之一,外科手术同样有原则,也存在争议需要讨论.笔者复习文献介绍了包括NSABP试验及NCCN有关的外科治疗指南.并重点针对锁骨上淋巴结活检与清扫的适应证与危险、前哨淋巴结检测的规范方法、乳腺癌手术后上肢淋巴水肿的诊治、乳腺癌...     

Effectiveness of Decongestive Lymphatic Therapy in Patients with Lymphedema Resulting from Breast Cancer Treatment Regardless of Previous Lymphedema Treatment

Decongestive lymphatic therapy (DLT) has gained wide acceptance as an effective treatment for patients with lymphedema resulting from breast cancer treatment. It is unclear whether DLT is effective for patients with lymphedema who have received lymphedema treatment previously. Our purpose was to compare the effectiveness of DLT in patients who had received lymphedema treatment previously with those who had never received treatment. We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 98 patients who received outpatient lymphedema therapy for upper extremity lymphedema following surgery. Seventy‐two eligible patients with a breast cancer diagnosis and complete medical records were divided into two groups: group 1; previously treated (PT) patients (n = 38, 53%) had previously received lymphedema treatment, while group 2 (no PT, n = 34, 47%) had never received lymphedema treatment. The primary outcome was the percent change in volume in the lymphedematous arm, measured by perometer, after DLT treatment. The two groups did not differ significantly in age, comorbidities, body mass index, and median time from surgery to current treatment, surgical procedure, previous radiation treatment, or history of cellulitis/lymphangitis. DLT significantly reduced arm volume in both groups (group 1, p < 0.001; group 2, p = 0.003). The mean percent volume reduction did not differ significantly between the groups (p = 0.619). This study is the first to show that, DLT reduce limb volume significantly with post‐mastectomy lymphedema, regardless of previous lymphedema therapy.     

Blue Dye Injection in the Arm in Order to Conserve the Lymphatic Drainage of the Arm in Breast Cancer Patients Requiring an Axillary Dissection

Background Despite the widespread use of the sentinel lymph node biopsy technique, many patients with invasive breast cancer still undergo an axillary lymph node dissection and are at risk of arm lymphedema. With the new awareness of lymphatic spread in the axillary nodes, it should be possible to define a new surgical approach between sentinel lymph node biopsy and complete axillary dissection, a procedure preserving specifically lymph nodes in relation to the arm. Methods Twenty-one patients with an operable breast cancer requiring an axillary dissection underwent surgery with an attempt to separate nodes related to the breast from specific nodes related to the arm. After an injection of blue dye in the arm, the surgeon performed the axillary dissection trying to identify blue nodes and ducts in order to preserve lymphatic arm drainage (LAD). If the blue nodes were located in the normal axillary dissection, they were removed separately. Results In 15 of 21 patients (71%), blue nodes in relation with LAD were identified. In 10 (47%) patients, it was possible to dissect the LAD with the preservation lymphatic ducts. In 10 patients, the LAD nodes were removed: none of them contained metastases, despite the fact that the non-LAD axillary nodes contained metastases in 7 of 10 cases. Conclusions Identifying the LAD with blue dye injection in the arm is possible. A subsequent study can now begin to determine if this procedure is safe for patients and able to prevent lymphedema of the arm.