Surveillance methodology for Vibrio cholerae in environmental samples

The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of Vibrio cholerae in environmental water samples by using a series of biochemical tests. A total of 223 V. cholerae-like bacteria were isolated from TCBS agar after spreading the alkaline peptone water enriched sewer (n = 21) and water (n = 16) samples. All oxidase positive isolates were subjected to confirmation for V. cholerae by seven other biochemical tests and polymerase chain reaction. Only 74.2% isolates were found to be V. cholerae by PCR using primers against an outer membrane protein (ompW) gene, out of which only 2 isolates were positive for cholera toxin (ctxAB) gene. Among the various biochemical tests studied, arginine hydrolysis, arabinose fermentation and string test showed 92 - 100% sensitivity and 42 - 67% specificity. Eight isolates including the toxigenic ones, showed agglutination with V. cholerae O1 antiserum. The present study showed that no biochemical test is 100% specific for V. cholerae. However, a few tests, if performed in a sequence after growing the alkaline peptone water enriched samples onto TCBS media can be used for screening of V. cholerae from the environmental samples. This study also showed that most of the environmental isolates are non-O1/non-O139 and the chances of presence of toxigenic V. cholerae are very rare in the environment.     

Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 in water and seafood, Haiti

During the 2010 cholera outbreak in Haiti, water and seafood samples were collected to detect Vibrio cholerae. The outbreak strain of toxigenic V. cholerae O1 serotype Ogawa was isolated from freshwater and seafood samples. The cholera toxin gene was detected in harbor water samples.     

Incidence and molecular analysis of Vibrio cholerae associated with cholera outbreak subsequent to the super cyclone in Orissa,India

An epidemiological study was carried out to find out the aetiological agent for diarrhoeal disorders in the cyclone and flood affected areas of Orissa, India. Rectal swabs collected from 107 hospitalized diarrhoea patients were bacteriologically analysed to isolate and identify the various enteropathogens. Detection of toxic genes among E. coli and V. cholerae was carried out by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Of the 107 rectal swabs analysed, 72.3% were positive for V. cholerae O1 Ogawa, 7.2% for V. cholerae O139, 1.2% for E. coli (EAggEC) and 1.2% for Shigella flexneri type 6. Using multiplex PCR assay it was found that all V. cholerae isolates were ctxA positive and El Tor biotype. Strains of V. cholerae O1 were observed to be resistant to nalidixic acid, furazolidone, streptomycin, co-trimoxazole and ampicillin. Except for nalidixic acid, the resistance pattern for O139 was identical to that of O1 strains. Representative strains of V. cholerae were further characterized by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis and ribotyping. Both O1 and O139 V. cholerae strains exhibited the R3 pattern of ribotype and belonged to a similar pattern of RAPD compared with that of Calcutta strains. Early bacteriological and epidemiological investigations have revealed the dominance of V. cholerae O1 among the hospitalized patients in cyclone affected areas of Orissa. Drinking water scarcity and poor sanitation were thought to be responsible for these diarrhoeal outbreaks. Timely reporting and implementation of appropriate control measures could contain a vital epidemic in this area.     

霍乱流行区江河霍乱弧菌污染的监测和消除研究

目的：全面掌握霍乱流行区江河段霍乱弧菌污染的状况并评价消除污染的措施及其效果。方法：于198年5月4日－7月1日对流行区A、B、C河流按每隔300－500米设立取水点，每2－3天采样1次；1998年7月－2001年12月对13个曾反复阳性点按月进行霍乱弧菌监测。采取对下水道污水消毒，拆除沿江两岸厕所和人群查源等措施以消除污染。结果：1998年4月28日－6月1日在流行区29个取水点检出霍乱弧菌。毒力测定人源株以中等毒力为主（68．8％），而水源株以弱毒为主（66．7％）。1998年7月至2001年12月采水796份，均未检出霍乱弧菌，24份水样L型菌，非可培养状态也为阴性。结论：该流行区江河段遭受一时性霍乱弧菌污染，1998年6月2日以后已彻底消除，未发生水型传播疫情，1998年8月－2001年12月，该区域也未再有霍乱病例发生，表明消除措施效果显著，也证明当地霍乱疫情系输入性。     

脉冲场凝胶电泳分型追溯江西省霍乱暴发传染源

目的分析2006年5月江西省聚餐暴发霍乱疫情的分离菌株与常规监测在外环境及水产品中分离的霍乱弧菌之间分子分型特征和遗传相关性。方法利用聚合酶链反应检测霍乱毒素基因，用脉冲场凝胶电泳（PFGE）对菌株进行分子分型，所得结果以BioNumerics V4．0软件UPGMA方法进行聚类分析。结果30株与暴发相关分离菌株中，无论来自病例、带菌者、疫区污水、水产品的菌株均为产毒株。30株O139群霍乱弧菌以NotⅠ酶切后PFGE可分为4个型别。从甲鱼、牛蛙分离的O139群霍乱弧菌的型别与此次暴发的优势PFGE型别一致，并且也为产毒株。两起暴发包括多起聚餐，从中分离的菌株优势型别相同，传播媒介为甲鱼、牛蛙，均购于同一水产批发部，说明为同一传染源。结论携带O139群霍乱毒素基因的甲鱼、牛蛙是引起本次多起聚餐暴发霍乱的主要传染源。     

广东省O1/O139群霍乱弧菌耐药监测分析

目的分析广东省霍乱病例及环境来源O1/O139群霍乱弧菌对抗生素的敏感性,为霍乱防控提供依据。方法选取2006-2008年广东省O1/O139群霍乱病例分离株38株,环境株145株,以毒素基因ctxAB的PCR检测区分产毒株与非产毒株;采用WHO推荐的改良Kirby-Bauer纸片法,分析霍乱弧菌对11种抗生素在体外的药物敏感性。结果183株O1/O139群霍乱弧菌中,ctxAB阳性44株,ctxAB阴性139株。分离自病例的菌株和ctxAB阳性菌株中,小川型菌株只对四环素、萘啶酸和复方新诺明有一定耐药;稻叶型菌株对萘啶酸和复方新诺明100%耐药,而O139群菌株对四环素、萘啶酸和复方新诺明等多种抗生素有一定耐药;分离自环境的菌株和ctxAB阴性菌株中,小川型和稻叶型菌株对四环素、萘啶酸和复方新诺明等多种抗生素有一定耐药,而O139群则仅对萘啶酸、复方新诺明和氨苄西林有一定耐药;分离自病例的菌株和ctxAB阳性菌株以耐多药为主,耐多药率分别为78.9%和75.0%,高于分离自环境的菌株和ctxAB阴性菌株的31.7%和30.9%(P0.01)。结论广东省O1/O139群霍乱弧菌中分离自病例的菌株和ctxAB阳性菌株耐多药率较高,应予以密切关注。     

Investigation of the 1994-5 Ukrainian Vibrio cholerae epidemic using molecular methods.

Thirty-seven Vibrio cholerae and four non-cholera Vibrio isolates from Ukraine, including strains from the epidemic of 1994-5, were analysed by molecular methods. Results from PFGE and ribotyping indicated that all Ukrainian toxigenic V. cholerae were closely related to each other and to an isolate from a patient from Pakistan. A non-toxigenic river water strain obtained during the height of the epidemic was more distantly related to these V. cholerae strains, while the Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates and Vibrio alginolyticus isolate were not closely related to V. cholerae or each other. ERIC- and REP-PCR allowed the differentiation of strains identical by other methods. The results obtained confirm that the epidemic Ukrainian strains are most closely related to seventh pandemic strains from Asia and support a hypothesis that the Ukrainian epidemic of 1994-5 was caused by toxigenic environmental strains surviving since the time of the 1991 Ukrainian epidemic or before.     

Prevalence and geographical distribution of Escherichia coli O157 in India: a 10-year survey

Escherichia coli colonizes the human gastrointestinal tract and produces a variety of diseases. Escherichia coli O157 is one of the most important pathogenic strains reported from food-borne illnesses leading to enterohemorrhagic colitis. The National Salmonella and Escherichia Centre is a national reference centre for Salmonella and Escherichia for India; it receives samples from research laboratories, hospitals and institutions for serological identification. The present study is an epidemiological survey of E. coli O157 in different regions of India. The data are based on samples received from humans, food items, animals and the environment. A total of 17 093 isolates cultured from samples were received during the 10-year period of which 5678 were from human sources. Thirty (0.5%) human samples were positive for E. coli O157. A significantly high percentage of E. coli O157 were isolated from meat (0.9%, 13/1376), milk and milk products (1.8%, 10/553), seafood (8.4%, 16/190) and water (1.6%, 8/486). The isolates were found to be distributed among domestic and wild animals, and the maximum number of isolates of E. coli O157 was detected in samples received from coastal belt areas. Escherichia coli O157 is widely distributed among humans and animals, food and environment in different geographical regions of India.     

The occurrence and sources of Campylobacter spp., Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in the Salmon River, British Columbia, Canada

In this study, we wished to assess the prevalence and determine the sources of three zoonotic bacterial pathogens (Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Escherichia coli O157:H7) in the Salmon River watershed in southwestern British Columbia. Surface water, sewage, and animal faecal samples were collected from the watershed. Selective bacterial culture and PCR techniques were used to isolate these three pathogens and indicator bacteria from these samples and characterize them. Campylobacter was the most prevalent pathogen in all samples, followed by Salmonella, and E. coli O157:H7. E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella isolation rates from water, as well as faecal coliform densities correlated positively with precipitation, while Campylobacter isolation rates correlated negatively with precipitation. Analysis of DNA extracted from water samples for the presence of Bacteroides host-species markers, and comparisons of C. jejuni flaA-RFLP types and Salmonella serovars from faecal and water samples provided evidence that human sewage and specific domestic and wild animal species were sources of these pathogens; however, in most cases the source could not be determined or more than one source was possible. The frequent isolation of these zoonotic pathogens in the Salmon River highlights the risks to human health associated with intentional and unintentional consumption of untreated surface waters.     

Characterization of Salmonella enterica and detection of the virulence genes specific to diarrheagenic Escherichia coli from poultry carcasses in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

One hundred chicken carcasses purchased from three markets selling poultry in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, between June 2010 and October 2010 were examined for their microbiological quality. The presence of Salmonella was investigated using standard bacteriological procedures, and the isolates obtained were serotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility. The presence of virulence-associated genes of the five main pathogroups of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli-Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli, and enteroinvasive E. coli-was investigated using 16-plex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on the mixed bacterial cultures from the poultry samples. Of the 100 chicken carcasses studied, 57 were contaminated by Salmonella; 16 different serotypes were identified, the most frequent being Salmonella Derby, found in 28 samples. Four Salmonella strains were resistant to tetracycline, and two were resistant to streptomycin. Based on the PCR detection of the virulence genes, in total, 45 carcasses were contaminated by three pathogroups of E. coli: STEC, EPEC, or EAEC. The STEC and EPEC virulence genes were detected on six and 39 carcasses, respectively. EAEC virulence genes were only detected in combination with those of EPEC (on 11 carcasses) or STEC (on two carcasses). The STEC-positive carcasses contained the genes stx(1), stx(2), eaeA, escV, and ent in different combinations. None of the EPEC-positive carcasses contained the bfp gene, indicating that only atypical EPEC was present. EAEC virulence genes detected were aggR and/or pic. The high proportion of chicken carcasses contaminated by Salmonella and diarrheagenic E. coli indicates a potential food safety risk for consumers and highlights the necessity of public awareness of these pathogens.     

脉冲场凝胶电泳分型技术在追溯O139霍乱传染来源中的应用

目的分析四川省2004年7起因聚餐暴发霍乱疫情的分离菌株之间,及其与常规监测中从外环境、水产品中分离的霍乱弧菌之间的分子分型特征和遗传相关性,查找霍乱传染来源.方法利用聚合酶链反应检测霍乱毒力基因（ctxAB）,用脉冲场凝胶电泳（PFGE）对菌株进行分子分型,所得结果以BioNumerics V4.0软件UPGMA方法进行聚类分析.结果所试72株O139群霍乱弧菌中所有4株从河水分离的菌株ctxAB阴性,其余均具有ctxAB,为产毒株.对其中的67株菌以Not I酶切后PFGE可分为16个型别.从甲鱼分离的O139群霍乱弧菌与同期流行的O139群霍乱弧菌优势PFGE型别一致,并且也为产毒株.7起暴发中分离的菌株型别各不相同.结论2004年四川省O139霍乱暴发感染来源复杂,提示并非因为菌株在该地持续存在而引起,但甲鱼可能是2004年度霍乱聚餐暴发的主要传染来源之一.     

广西首次分离 O139群霍乱弧菌的病原学特征

目的 了解O139群霍乱弧菌的病原学特征。方法 采用经典的微生物学、噬菌体-生物分型方法进行生化、药敏和流行菌株的分型,并用家兔肠段结扎方法进行霍乱肠毒素检测。结果 4株菌与O139群霍乱诊断血清发生强凝集反应。与O1群多价血清不凝集;在庆大琼脂平板上菌落较O1群霍乱弧菌混浊、隆起。霍乱肠毒素检测均为中等毒力,对氟哌酸、丁胺卡那霉素敏感,对9种抗菌药物耐药。结论 霍乱肠毒素检测为中等毒力,具备引起流行的能力,为流行株。因此加强监测,及时做好防治措施十分必要。     

Increased prevalence of indicator and pathogenic bacteria in Vembanadu Lake: a function of salt water regulator, along south west coast of India

Prevalence of faecal indicator bacteria, Escherichia coli and pathogenic bacteria, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Salmonella were analysed in Vembanadu lake (9 degrees 35'N 76 degrees 25'E), along south west coast of India for a period of one year from ten stations on the southern and northern sides of a salt water regulator constructed in Vembanadu Lake in order to prevent incursion of seawater during certain periods of the year. While the northern side of the lake has a connection to the sea, the southern side is enclosed when the salt water regulator is closed. The results revealed the water body is polluted with high faecal coliform bacteria with mean MPN value ranging from 1718-7706/100 ml. E. coli, V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and Salmonella serotypes such as S. paratyphi A, B, C and S. newport were isolated and this is the first report on the isolation of these Salmonella serovars from this lake. E. coli showed highest percentage of incidence (85.6-86.7%) followed by Salmonella (42-57%), V. choleare (40-45%) and V. parahaemolyticus (31.5-32%). The increased prevalence of indicator and pathogenic bacteria in the enclosed southern part of Vembanadu Lake may be resulting from the altered flow patterns due to the salt water regulator.     

2001至2005年广州地区霍乱弧菌主要致病相关基因特征分析

目的 应用多重聚合酶链反应（PCR）检测方法和测序研究近5年广州地区分离的霍乱弧菌的4种致病相关基因的携带情况及霍乱肠毒素基因ctxA的变异情况。方法针对霍乱肠毒素A亚单位基因（ctxA）、小带联结毒素基因（zot）、辅助霍乱肠毒素基因（ace）、毒素共调菌毛亚单位A基因（tcpA）设计引物,将多重PCR方法应用于广州地区分离的276株霍乱弧菌的致病相关基因的检测。对ctxA基因的PCR扩增产物进行核苷酸序列测定,探讨ctxA扩增产物的同源性。结果 近5年广州地区分离的276株霍乱弧菌中,人源株中93．9％为致病相关基因A型（ctxA^＋tcpA^＋ace^＋zot^＋型）菌,其余6．1％为致病相关基因C型（ctxA^-tcpA^-ace^-zot^-型）菌,临床分离的致病相关基因A型菌分离自轻、中、重型病例和带菌者,其中有68．5％分离自轻型病例,21．9％分离自带菌者,临床分离的致病相关基因C型菌中有63．6％分离自轻型病例,36．4％分离自带菌者,C型菌引起带菌者的比例高于A型菌;78株环境分离株中9．0％为致病相关基因A型菌,35．9％为致病相关基因B型（ctxA^-tcpA^-ace^＋zot^＋型）菌,55．1％为致病相关基因C型菌。霍乱肠毒素基因ctxA变异较小。结论 多重PCR方法揭示了广州地区霍乱弧菌致病相关基因模式的多态性,为深入研究人源和环境来源霍乱菌株致病相关基因的演化提供了有效手段,并对本地区霍乱的预防、控制和预警具有重要的指导意义。     

Microbiological evaluation of fecal bacterial composition from surface water through aquifer sand material

When bacterial pathogens from livestock contaminate drinking water supplies, they can cause different forms of gastroenteritis. The objective of this study was to enumerate the concentrations of fecal indicator (Escherichia coli and enterococci) in surface water in order to determine removal efficiency by sand filtration. The concentrations of different indicator bacterial species were determined after running tertiary treated water through two tanks containing aquifer material. Enterococcus faecalis primers targeting the ddl gene and primers for Enterococcus faecium were used to identify the two species in the samples. A PCR assay based on the partial sequence of the b-D-glucoronidase gene (uidA) for specific detection and differentiation of E. coli populations was used to confirm the presence of E. coli after a biochemical test. The biochemical test overestimated the percentage of E. faecium in our samples, but the PCR assay with the ddl gene produced 100% specificity with Enterococcus faecalis. The biochemical test was 91.5% specific in identifying E. coli. The composition of indicator bacteria in Santa Ana River was dominated by intestinal microflora of humans and animals; filtration by aquifer sand material may reduce the transport of indicator bacteria from surface water to groundwater.     

Molecular characterization of Vibrio cholerae O1 and non-O1 from human and environmental sources in Malaysia

A total of 31 strains of Vibrio cholerae O1 (10 from outbreak cases and 7 from surface water) and non-O1 (4 from clinical and 10 from surface water sources) isolated between 1993 and 1997 were examined with respect to presence of cholera enterotoxin (CT) gene by PCR-based assays, resistance to antibiotics, plasmid profiles and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. All were resistant to 9 or more of the 17 antibiotics tested. Identical antibiotic resistance patterns of the isolates may indicate that they share a common mode of developing antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, the multiple antibiotic resistance indexing showed that all strains tested originated from high risk contamination. Plasmid profile analysis by agarose gel electrophoresis showed the presence of small plasmids in 12 (7 non-O1 and 5 O1 serotypes) with sizes ranging 1.3-4.6 MDa. The CT gene was detected in all clinical isolates but was present in only 14 (6 O1 serotype and 8 non-O1 serotype) isolates from environmental waters. The genetic relatedness of the clinical and environmental Vibrio cholerae O1 and non-O1 strains was investigated by RAPD fingerprinting with four primers. The four primers generated polymorphisms in all 31 strains of Vibrio cholerae tested, producing bands ranging from < 250 to 4500 bp. The RAPD profiles revealed a wide variability and no correlation with the source of isolation. This study provides evidence that Vibrio cholerae O1 and non-O1 have significant public health implications.     

应用PCR技术检测霍乱肠毒素

聚合酶链反应(PCR)是一种快速检测霍乱弧菌肠毒素(CT)的方法。用PCR法检测从水和水产品分离的8株O1群霍乱弧菌CT，结果均为阴性。CT的检测对了解水和水产品中分离株是否对公共卫生构成威胁有重要意义。O1群霍乱弧菌的霍乱肠毒素A亚单位(ctxA)基因引物也能扩增0139。     

Quantitative detection of E. coli, E. coli O157 and other shiga toxin producing E. coli in water samples using a culture method combined with real-time PCR

Recent water related outbreaks of shiga toxin producing E. coli O157 have resulted in increased attention of the water industry to this potentially deadly pathogen. Current methods to detect E. coli O157 and its virulence genes are laborious and time-consuming. Specificity, sensitivity and simple use of a real-time PCR method makes it an attractive alternative for the detection of STEC E. coli O157. This study describes the development and application of real-time PCR methods for the detection of E. coli O157, shiga toxin genes (Stx1 and Stx2) and E. coli. The specificity of the methods was confirmed by performing colony-PCR assays on characterized bacterial isolates, demonstrating the applicability of these assays as rapid tests to confirm the presence of E. coli or E. coli O157 colonies on culture plates. Sensitive culture-PCR methods were developed by combining culture enrichment with real-time PCR detection. This rapid method allowed detection of low concentrations of E. coli O157 in the presence of high concentrations of non-O157-E. coli (1:104). Culture-PCR methods were applied to 27 surface water and 4 wastewater samples. E. coli O157 and both Stx genes were detected in two wastewater samples, whereas only E. coli O157 was detected in two surface water samples. Culture-PCR methods were not influenced by matrix effects and also enabled quantitative (MPN) detection of E. coli in these samples.     

The prevalence of Vibrio spp. in drinking water and environmental samples in Vellore South India.

The prevalence of Vibrio cholerae in drinking water, lakes and sewage outfalls during July and August 1996 in Vellore, India was determined. Drinking water samples were collected on single occasions from 12 sites in different geographic areas of the town where cholera had been reported. Samples of water, plankton and sediment were collected from fixed sites at three lakes on three occasions separated by at least 3 days during the course of the study. Samples from open sewers were taken from two representative sites in four areas of the town. Bacteria isolated from samples were identified by standard biochemical tests and isolated strains of V. cholerae tested for their ability to agglutinate O1 and O139 antisera. Water samples from lakes were also tested for the presence of V. cholerae O1 and O139 by fluorescent antibody staining. Non-O1, non-O139 strains of V. cholerae were detected in 41% of drinking water samples and 100% of water, sediment and plankton samples from the test lakes. Eighty-seven per cent of open sewers sampled contained viable non-O1, non-O139 V. cholerae. Fluorescent antibody staining gave positive results for V. cholerae O1 and O139 for all water samples from the three lake sites. Strains of Aeromonas spp. were isolated from 58% of drinking water samples and from 66% of sediment, 77% of plankton and 55% of water samples from lakes. All open sewers sampled contained Aeromonas spp. PCR amplification employing specific primers demonstrated that none of the non-agglutinating V. cholerae isolates contained the ctx operon. The non-O1, non-O139 V. cholerae isolates showed different patterns of antibiotic resistance to ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline and trimethoprim.     

Increased prevalence of indicator and pathogenic bacteria in Vembanadu Lake: a function of salt water regulator, along south west coast of India

Prevalence of faecal indicator bacteria, Escherichia coli and pathogenic bacteria, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Salmonella were analysed in Vembanadu lake (9°35´N 76°25´E), along south west coast of India for a period of one year from ten stations on the southern and northern sides of a salt water regulator constructed in Vembanadu Lake in order to prevent incursion of seawater during certain periods of the year. While the northern side of the lake has a connection to the sea, the southern side is enclosed when the salt water regulator is closed. The results revealed the water body is polluted with high faecal coliform bacteria with mean MPN value ranging from 1718-7706/100 ml. E. coli, V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and Salmonella serotypes such as S. paratyphi A, B, C and S. newport were isolated and this is the first report on the isolation of these Salmonella serovars from this lake. E. coli showed highest percentage of incidence (85.6–86.7%) followed by Salmonella (42–57%), V. choleare (40–45%) and V. parahaemolyticus (31.5–32%). The increased prevalence of indicator and pathogenic bacteria in the enclosed southern part of Vembanadu Lake may be resulting from the altered flow patterns due to the salt water regulator.