Systematic approach needed to establish cause of vertigo

Vertigo can be defined as an illusion or hallucination of movement. The control of balance is complicated. Vertigo can be caused by many different pathologies, some of which are potentially life threatening. An important differentiation is whether the symptoms of vertigo originate from a central or peripheral origin. Clues to a central origin are other brainstem symptoms or signs of acute onset such as headache, deafness and other neurological findings. These patients warrant urgent referral and investigation. Red flags in patients with vertigo include: headache; neurological symptoms; and neurological signs. It is useful to categorise vertigo into acute and chronic. The former usually has a single mechanism whereas chronic dizziness is often multifactorial. History is usually the most important part of the assessment. Key questions should be asked and it is vital to establish if the patient is suffering from vertigo or some other complaint such as anxiety or syncope. A neurological and otological examination should be performed, appropriate to the history. Assessment of gait and posture is crucial. If the patient has positional vertigo then a Hallpike test should be performed. Visual acuity should be checked as vision is a vital part of the balance system. The cranial nerves should be tested in particular eye movements for any ophthalmoplegia pointing to focal cranial nerve pathology and for nystagmus. The rest of the neurological examination should exclude evidence of central disease, in particular cerebellar disease, and neuropathy. If syncope is suspected it is wise to perform an extensive systemic examination in particular lying and standing BP, and cardiovascular and respiratory system assessments.     

伴单侧外周前庭受损的头晕/眩晕患者的临床分析

目的:探讨伴单侧外周前庭受损(UPVD)的头晕/眩晕患者的病因学、临床特征及相关危险因素。方法:连续收集我院神经科门诊就诊的伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者148例为病例组,同期收集我院健康体检门诊年龄、性别相匹配的187例健康人为对照组。收集2组研究对象的基线资料,分析伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者的病因及伴发疾病分布,应用多元Logistic回归分析伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者的独立危险因素。结果:148例伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者年龄9~86岁,男:女约为1:2。可以头晕(74.3%)或眩晕(25.7%)起病,分原发性(23.0%)和继发性/伴发性(77.0%)。原发性伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者包括急性原发单侧前庭病、发作性原发单侧前庭病、慢性原发单侧前庭病;继发/伴发性伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者包括良性阵发性位置性眩晕、持续性姿势-感知性头晕、可能的迷路卒中、慢性缺血性单侧前庭病可能、内耳缺血性发作性前庭病变可能、前庭性偏头痛、梅尼埃病、前庭神经元炎及迷路震荡。多元Logistic回归分析提示高血压、高脂血症是伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者的独立危险因素(P<0.05)。结论:神经科门诊伴UPVD的头晕/眩晕患者常伴有动脉粥样硬化危险因素。病因诊断较为困难,病因不明最为多见,其次多因伴发良性阵发性位置性眩晕、持续性姿势-感知性头晕和可能的迷路卒中而就诊。     

Dissection of dizziness

Of the causes of vertigo, involvement of the labyrinthine system is the most common. Characteristics of vertiginous episodes as described by the patient are the prime clue in differential diagnosis. When medication is advisable, the physician can choose from a variety of antihistaminic, antiemetic, and sedative agents.     

Effectiveness of the Epley maneuver versus Cawthorne-Cooksey vestibular exercises in the treatment of posterior semicircular canal benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV): A randomized controlled trial

ObjectiveBenign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) is the most common cause of peripheral vertigo that mainly affects the posterior semicircular canal. Studies suggest that Epley maneuver could improve balance of patients, but Cawthorne-Cooksey vestibular exercises are still scarce. This study aimed to observe the effects of Cawthorne-Cooksey vestibular exercises applied after the Epley maneuver on balance, vertigo symptoms, and quality of life in posterior semicircular canal BPPV.MethodsThirty-six patients with posterior semicircular canal BPPV were randomly assigned into Epley maneuver (EpleyM) and Epley maneuver and exercise (EpleyM&Exe) groups. All patients were treated with the Epley maneuver, while Cawthorne-Cooksey vestibular exercises were given to the EpleyM&Exe group as home exercises for 6 weeks. Their static and dynamic balance, vertigo symptoms, and quality of life were assessed at pre-, post-intervention (1st, 3rd and 6th weeks).ResultsThirty-two patients completed the study (mean age: 46.91 ± 9.78 years). Epley maneuver applied alone and combined with Cawthorne-Cooksey vestibular exercises, was found to be effective in 25 patients (78.1%), 6 patients (18.8%) and 1 patient (3.1%) at the 1st, 3rd and 6th weeks, respectively. After 6 weeks, both groups had gained significant improvements in balance, vertigo symptoms, and quality of life (p < 0.001); however, there were no significant differences between the groups, except for the static dominant leg balance test (p = 0.022).ConclusionsThe Epley maneuver can be considered as the first option compared to Cawthorne-Cooksey vestibular exercises. Exercises do not appear to have any additional effects in improving posterior semicircular canal BPPV symptoms.     

Differential diagnosis and treatment of vertigo in hypertensive patients

AiM: To study causes of vertigo in hypertensive patients and specify approaches to its treatment. Material and methods. Prevalence and causes of vertigo were analysed in 285 patients with arterial hypertension (AH). The examination included 24-h monitoring of arterial pressure (APM) and MR-tomography of the head. RESULTS: The majority of patients (78%) hospitalized with the diagnosis "hypertensive crisis" were diagnosed to have other diseases (headaches of tension, stroke, Meniere's syndrome and disease, etc.) the development of which was accompanied with hypertension and simulated a hypertensive crisis. Vertigo occurs in 20% hypertensive patients and is unrelated to elevated blood pressure. It is rather due to associated neurological, peripheral vestibular and other diseases. APM shows that vertigo occurs in hypotension after intake of hypotensive drugs. In hypertensive patients treatment of vertigo should not be directed only to management of elevated pressure but demands treatment of underlying disease. Vertigo plus mnestic disorders are effectively corrected with tanakan in a dose 120-160 mg/day. CONCLUSION: Vertigo in hypertensive patients is not caused by elevated pressure but related with concomitant neurological or peripheral vestibular diseases as well as hypotension. Hypertensive patients with vertigo need correction of the condition causing it.     

Initial evaluation of vertigo

Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, acute vestibular neuronitis, and Meniere's disease cause most cases of vertigo; however, family physicians must consider other causes including cerebrovascular disease, migraine, psychological disease, perilymphatic fistulas, multiple sclerosis, and intracranial neoplasms. Once it is determined that a patient has vertigo, the next task is to determine whether the patient has a peripheral or central cause of vertigo. Knowing the typical clinical presentations of the various causes of vertigo aids in making this distinction. The history (i.e., timing and duration of symptoms, provoking factors, associated signs and symptoms) and physical examination (especially of the head and neck and neurologic systems, as well as special tests such as the Dix-Hallpike maneuver) provide important clues to the diagnosis. Associated neurologic signs and symptoms, such as nystagmus that does not lessen when the patient focuses, point to central (and often more serious) causes of vertigo, which require further work-up with selected laboratory and radiologic studies such as magnetic resonance imaging.     

The dizzy patient. A practical approach to management

Dizziness can generally be divided into true vertigo and pseudovertigo (giddiness or light-headedness). The most common causes of pseudovertigo are hyperventilation, orthostatic hypotension, and multisensory deficits of older patients. Of the many types of true vertigo, only a few are caused by serious structural disorders of the brainstem, and these can usually be recognized by their temporal profile and concomitant symptoms and signs. Most cases of vertigo are caused by peripheral vestibular disorders that are self-limiting. Treatment is directed toward control of the acute autonomic symptoms and labyrinthine suppression until physiologic compensation takes place. Patients with vertigo that is prolonged, chronic, and recurrent may be helped by exercises designed to hasten or assist recovery of compensatory mechanisms.     

Balance performance and self-perceived handicap among dizzy patients in primary health care

OBJECTIVE: To study the diagnostic panorama at a primary health care centre where the physiotherapist is specialized in dizziness. To study balance measures of dizzy patients as well as measures of self-perceived handicap and to analyse whether these measures correlate. DESIGN: Retrospective study of computerized medical records. SETTING: A primary health care centre in Malm?, Sweden. SUBJECTS: A total of 119 patients with dizziness, 73 women and 46 men, aged from 22 to 90 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Diagnoses according to specified criteria. Four balance measures: tandem standing, standing on one leg, walking in a figure of eight, and walking heel to toe on a line. The Dizziness Handicap Inventory (DHI). RESULTS: Six different groups of diagnoses were found: multisensory dizziness, peripheral vestibular disorder, dizziness as a symptom caused by whiplash-associated disorder, unspecific dizziness, phobic postural vertigo, and dizziness of cervical origin. The group with multisensory dizziness performed poorer on the balance measures than the other groups. The group with phobic postural vertigo had the highest total scores on DHI, while the vestibular group had the lowest total score. Subjects over 65 years old had more disturbances in balance, but a lower level of self-perceived handicap, than subjects aged 65 or younger. DHI did not correlate with any of the balance measures. CONCLUSIONS: Self-perceived handicap, measured with DHI, and disturbed balance measured with clinical methods, do not necessarily correlate. Elderly patients with dizziness seem to have more disturbances in balance than younger patients but a lower level of self-perceived handicap.     

Migrainous Vertigo: Results of Caloric Testing and Stabilometric Findings

Background.— Association between migraine and vertigo has been widely studied during the last years. A central or peripheral vestibular damage may occur in patients with migrainous vertigo. Despite much evidence, at present the International Headache Society classification does not include a specific category for migrainous vertigo. Objectives.— To assess the prevalence of central and peripheral vestibular disorders and postural abnormalities in patients diagnosed as affected by definite migrainous vertigo according to Neuhauser. Methods.— Thirty patients with migraine and acute vertigo lasting from minutes to hours underwent a full otoneurological screening for spontaneous, positional, and positioning nystagmus with head‐shaking and head‐thrust (Halmagyi) tests, an audiometric examination, and videonystagmography with bithermal stimulation according to Freyss. Videonystagmographic findings were compared with those of 15 migraineurs without lifetime vertigo (group M). Next day, a static posturography was performed; posturographic results have been compared with those of a second control group of 30 healthy patients matched for age and sex (group C). Results.— In total, 14 subjects with migrainous vertigo showed otovestibular disorders; 6 subjects showed impaired vestibulo‐oculomotor reflexes (20%). Five more patients had bilateral increased responses (16.6%). Five patients showed signs of central brainstem or cerebellar disorders for altered pursuit or saccades or positional direction changing nystagmus. Stabilometric results returned higher values of Length and Surface above all when testing was performed in eyes closed conditions compared with the normal control group. The subgroup of 14 subjects with migrainous vertigo and vestibular abnormalities performed poorly in stabilometric exams and seemed to rely more on visual cues in balance control than the subgroup of 16 subjects with migrainous vertigo but without abnormalities. Discussion.— Our results indicate that vestibular functional damage may occur in all vestibular pathways; central and peripheral signs are equally represented. Our data are not inconsistent with the hypothesis that a vestibulo‐spinal dysfunction is the causal factor for the posturographic results. Moreover, the Visual Romberg Index is significant for increased visual cue dependence in migraineurs.     

The use of a two-dimensional ultrasound time-of-flight system for location of the centre of gravity in posturography measurements

A method has been developed for objective assessment of balance using ultrasound time-of-flight (ToF) posturography measurements to accurately locate the centre of gravity (CoG) of a subject. Two orthogonal 40 kHz ultrasound transmitters are mounted on the subject's waist at the height of the CoG. Anterior/posterior and lateral motions are detected independently by measuring variations in the ToF from the transmitters to appropriately positioned wall-mounted receivers. The motion of the CoG is accurately traced during the course of 20 second assessment periods as the subject stands on a solid surface with eyes open and eyes closed. The tests are repeated with the subject standing on a standardized soft surface. Trials of day-to-day repeatability and repeated tests on patients prior to therapy indicate there is no significant improvement to balance measures with experience of the system. Balance measures are significantly worse in patients suffering vertigo symptoms following traumatic brain injury than for equivalent normal volunteers. Repeated measures post-therapy indicate significant improvement in balance measures following vestibular therapy in patients with vertigo. CoG location using ultrasound ToF is a suitable method of tracking sway and thus assessing balance in normals and balance-compromised patients.     

Iranian nurses’ preparation for loss: finding a balance in end‐of‐life care

Aim. To explore the nurse–patient interaction in terminally ill situations in acute care, focusing on the nurses’ preparation for loss. Background. Caring for dying patients can be a distressing and sometimes even threatening experience for nurses. Despite the vast body of literature on nurse/patient interaction and the quality of end‐of‐life care, few studies focus specifically on nurses’ experience. Design. A grounded theory approach was used to explore nurses’ interaction with dying patients and their families and examine how nurses deal with situations in which the patient’s death is inevitable. Method. Eighteen nurses were interviewed up to three times each at three teaching hospitals in Isfahan, Iran, during autumn 2006. A shortlist of possible participants was obtained by means of theoretical sampling and those who had experienced the death of patients and were able to express their feelings verbally were selected. Results. The results clarified a core consideration: striking a balance between restorative and palliative care, information and hope, expectations and abilities and intimacy and distance. Conclusion. Attaining a balance in caring for dying patients is a major challenge to nurses: it concerns not only their interactions with patients and their families, but also their perceptions of themselves and their actions in end‐of‐life care. Relevance to clinical practice. In end‐of‐life care, it is important for nurses to be able to change the focus of their care when the patient’s condition is diagnosed as irreversible. They also need to be well equipped to maintain a balance, thereby preparing themselves for the patient’s forthcoming death.     

Vertigo and dizziness related to migraine: a diagnostic challenge

Vertigo and dizziness can be related to migraine in various ways: causally, statistically or, quite frequently, just by chance. Migrainous vertigo (MV) is a vestibular syndrome caused by migraine and presents with attacks of spontaneous or positional vertigo lasting seconds to days and migrainous symptoms during the attack. MV is the most common cause of spontaneous recurrent vertigo and is presently not included in the International Headache Society classification of migraine. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) and Ménière's disease (MD) are statistically related to migraine, but the possible pathogenetic links have not been established. Moreover, migraineurs suffer from motion sickness more often than controls. Persistent cerebellar symptoms may develop in the course of familial hemiplegic migraine. Dizziness may also be due to orthostatic hypotension, anxiety disorders or major depression which all have an increased prevalence in patients with migraine.     

Acrophobia and pathological height vertigo: indications for vestibular physical therapy?

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Acrophobia (fear of heights) may be related to a high degree of height vertigo caused by visual dependence in the maintenance of standing balance. The purpose of this case report is to describe the use of vestibular physical therapy intervention following behavioral therapy to reduce a patient's visual dependence and height vertigo. CASE DESCRIPTION: Mr N was a 37-year-old man with agoraphobia (fear of open spaces) that included symptoms of height phobia. Exposure to heights triggered symptoms of dizziness. Intervention. Mr N underwent 8 sessions of behavioral therapy that involved exposure to heights using a head-mounted virtual reality device. Subsequently, he underwent 8 weeks of physical therapy for an individualized vestibular physical therapy exercise program. OUTCOMES: After behavioral therapy, the patient demonstrated improvements on the behavioral avoidance test and the Illness Intrusiveness Rating Scale, but dizziness and body sway responses to moving visual scenes did not decrease. After physical therapy, his dizziness and sway responses decreased and his balance confidence increased. DISCUSSION: Symptoms of acrophobia and sway responses to full-field visual motion appeared to respond to vestibular physical therapy administered after completion of a course of behavioral therapy. Vestibular physical therapy may have a role in the management of height phobia related to excessive height vertigo.     

Evaluation and management of the dizzy patient.

Evaluation and management of the dizzy patient remains frustrating to both the patient and physician. Numerous disorders may induce dizziness; these include not only inner ear disoders but also various central nervous system, ocular, and general systemic disturbances. Since dizziness has many variations, the subtle nuances the symptom may manifest must be explored throughly. Similarly, a consistent approach to the patient's physical and larboratory examination must be taken to understand the pathophysiology of the dizziness. This includes comprehensive auditory and vestibular evaluation, complete neurologic and ophthalmologic examination, and laboratory evaluation for latent or manifest systemic disease. The management of dizziness and vertigo is largely symptomatic. Certain exceptions exist where specific medical and surgical approaches may be beneficial, but the limitations of such treatment must be appreciated.     

交感神经皮肤反应检测对前庭系统性眩晕的评定价值

目的 探讨交感神经皮肤反应(SSR)对不同病因所致前庭系统性眩晕的临床评定价值.方法 将120例急性前庭系统性眩晕患者分为中枢性眩晕组70例和周围性眩晕组50例,分别行SSR检测评定,并与60名健康人(正常对照组)作对照.结果 中枢性眩晕组在急性发作期SSR潜伏期延长、波幅降低,SSR总异常率为87.1%(61/70),与周围性眩晕组及正常对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);周围性眩晕组SSR总异常率为18.0%(9/50),潜伏期和波幅改变与正常对照组比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 前庭中枢性眩晕患者在急性发作期可出现交感神经系统功能损害,SSR检测评定可作为临床鉴别前庭中枢性眩晕和周围性眩晕的重要参考指标之一.     

交感神经皮肤反应检测对前庭系统性眩晕的评定价值

目的 探讨交感神经皮肤反应(SSR)对不同病因所致前庭系统性眩晕的临床评定价值.方法 将120例急性前庭系统性眩晕患者分为中枢性眩晕组70例和周围性眩晕组50例,分别行SSR检测评定,并与60名健康人(正常对照组)作对照.结果 中枢性眩晕组在急性发作期SSR潜伏期延长、波幅降低,SSR总异常率为87.1%(61/70),与周围性眩晕组及正常对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);周围性眩晕组SSR总异常率为18.0%(9/50),潜伏期和波幅改变与正常对照组比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 前庭中枢性眩晕患者在急性发作期可出现交感神经系统功能损害,SSR检测评定可作为临床鉴别前庭中枢性眩晕和周围性眩晕的重要参考指标之一.     

交感神经皮肤反应检测对前庭系统性眩晕的评定价值

目的 探讨交感神经皮肤反应(SSR)对不同病因所致前庭系统性眩晕的临床评定价值.方法 将120例急性前庭系统性眩晕患者分为中枢性眩晕组70例和周围性眩晕组50例,分别行SSR检测评定,并与60名健康人(正常对照组)作对照.结果 中枢性眩晕组在急性发作期SSR潜伏期延长、波幅降低,SSR总异常率为87.1%(61/70),与周围性眩晕组及正常对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);周围性眩晕组SSR总异常率为18.0%(9/50),潜伏期和波幅改变与正常对照组比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 前庭中枢性眩晕患者在急性发作期可出现交感神经系统功能损害,SSR检测评定可作为临床鉴别前庭中枢性眩晕和周围性眩晕的重要参考指标之一.     

交感神经皮肤反应检测对前庭系统性眩晕的评定价值

目的 探讨交感神经皮肤反应(SSR)对不同病因所致前庭系统性眩晕的临床评定价值.方法 将120例急性前庭系统性眩晕患者分为中枢性眩晕组70例和周围性眩晕组50例,分别行SSR检测评定,并与60名健康人(正常对照组)作对照.结果 中枢性眩晕组在急性发作期SSR潜伏期延长、波幅降低,SSR总异常率为87.1%(61/70),与周围性眩晕组及正常对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);周围性眩晕组SSR总异常率为18.0%(9/50),潜伏期和波幅改变与正常对照组比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 前庭中枢性眩晕患者在急性发作期可出现交感神经系统功能损害,SSR检测评定可作为临床鉴别前庭中枢性眩晕和周围性眩晕的重要参考指标之一.     

交感神经皮肤反应检测对前庭系统性眩晕的评定价值

目的 探讨交感神经皮肤反应(SSR)对不同病因所致前庭系统性眩晕的临床评定价值.方法 将120例急性前庭系统性眩晕患者分为中枢性眩晕组70例和周围性眩晕组50例,分别行SSR检测评定,并与60名健康人(正常对照组)作对照.结果 中枢性眩晕组在急性发作期SSR潜伏期延长、波幅降低,SSR总异常率为87.1%(61/70),与周围性眩晕组及正常对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);周围性眩晕组SSR总异常率为18.0%(9/50),潜伏期和波幅改变与正常对照组比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 前庭中枢性眩晕患者在急性发作期可出现交感神经系统功能损害,SSR检测评定可作为临床鉴别前庭中枢性眩晕和周围性眩晕的重要参考指标之一.     

交感神经皮肤反应检测对前庭系统性眩晕的评定价值

目的 探讨交感神经皮肤反应(SSR)对不同病因所致前庭系统性眩晕的临床评定价值.方法 将120例急性前庭系统性眩晕患者分为中枢性眩晕组70例和周围性眩晕组50例,分别行SSR检测评定,并与60名健康人(正常对照组)作对照.结果 中枢性眩晕组在急性发作期SSR潜伏期延长、波幅降低,SSR总异常率为87.1%(61/70),与周围性眩晕组及正常对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);周围性眩晕组SSR总异常率为18.0%(9/50),潜伏期和波幅改变与正常对照组比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 前庭中枢性眩晕患者在急性发作期可出现交感神经系统功能损害,SSR检测评定可作为临床鉴别前庭中枢性眩晕和周围性眩晕的重要参考指标之一.