Long-term Exposure to PM2.5 and Incidence of Acute Myocardial Infarction

Background: A number of studies have shown associations between chronic exposure to particulate air pollution and increased mortality, particularly from cardiovascular disease, but fewer studies have examined the association between long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution and specific cardiovascular events, such as acute myocardial infarction (AMI).Objective: We examined how long-term exposure to area particulate matter affects the onset of AMI, and we distinguished between area and local pollutants.Methods: Building on the Worcester Heart Attack Study, an ongoing community-wide investigation examining changes over time in myocardial infarction incidence in greater Worcester, Massachusetts, we conducted a case–control study of 4,467 confirmed cases of AMI diagnosed between 1995 and 2003 and 9,072 matched controls selected from Massachusetts resident lists. We used a prediction model based on satellite aerosol optical depth (AOD) measurements to generate both exposure to particulate matter ≤ 2.5 μm in diameter (PM_2.5) at the area level (10 × 10 km) and the local level (100 m) based on local land use variables. We then examined the association between area and local particulate pollution and occurrence of AMI.Results: An interquartile range (IQR) increase in area PM_2.5 (0.59 μg/m³) was associated with a 16% increase in the odds of AMI (95% CI: 1.04, 1.29). An IQR increase in total PM_2.5 (area + local, 1.05 μg/m³) was weakly associated with a 4% increase in the odds of AMI (95% CI: 0.96, 1.11).Conclusions: Residential exposure to PM_2.5 may best be represented by a combination of area and local PM_2.5, and it is important to consider spatial gradients within a single metropolitan area when examining the relationship between particulate matter exposure and cardiovascular events.     

Comparison of PM2.5 and PM10 monitors

An extensive PM monitoring study was conducted during the 1998 Baltimore PM Epidemiology-Exposure Study of the Elderly. One goal was to investigate the mass concentration comparability between various monitoring instrumentation located across residential indoor, residential outdoor, and ambient sites. Filter-based (24-h integrated) samplers included Federal Reference Method Monitors (PM2.5-FRMs), Personal Environmental Monitors (PEMs), Versatile Air Pollution Samplers (VAPS), and cyclone-based instruments. Tapered element oscillating microbalances (TEOMs) collected real-time data. Measurements were collected on a near-daily basis over a 28-day period during July-August, 1998. The selected monitors had individual sampling completeness percentages ranging from 64% to 100%. Quantitation limits varied from 0.2 to 5.0 microg/m3. Results from matched days indicated that mean individual PM10 and PM2.5 mass concentrations differed by less than 3 microg/m3 across the instrumentation and within each respective size fraction. PM10 and PM2.5 mass concentration regression coefficients of determination between the monitors often exceeded 0.90 with coarse (PM10-2.5) comparisons revealing coefficients typically well below 0.40. Only one of the outdoor collocated PM2.5 monitors (PEM) provided mass concentration data that were statistically different from that produced by a protoype PM2.5 FRM sampler. The PEM had a positive mass concentration bias ranging up to 18% relative to the FRM prototype.     

Apheis: Health Impact Assessment of Long-term Exposure to PM2.5 in 23 European Cities

Introduction

Apheis aims to provide European decision makers, environmental-health professionals and the general public with up-to-date and easy-to-use information on air pollution (AP) and public health (PH). In the Apheis-3 phase we quantified the PH impact of long-term exposure to PM_2.5 (particulate matter < 2.5 μm) in terms of attributable number of deaths and the potential gain in life expectancy in 23 European cities.

Methods

We followed the World Health Organization (WHO) methodology for Health Impact Assessment (HIA) and the Apheis guidelines for data collection and analysis. We used the programme created by PSAS-9 for attributable-cases calculations and the WHO software AirQ to estimate the potential gain in life expectancy. For most cities, PM_2.5 levels were calculated from PM₁₀ measurements using a local or European conversion factor.

Results

The HIA estimated that 16,926 premature deaths from all causes, including 11,612 cardiopulmonary deaths and 1901 lung-cancer deaths, could be prevented annually if long-term exposure to PM_2.5 levels were reduced to 15 μg/m³ in each city. Equivalently, this reduction would increase life expectancy at age 30 by a range between one month and more than two years in the Apheis cities.

Conclusions

In addition to the number of attributable cases, our HIA has estimated the potential gain in life expectancy for long-term exposure to fine particles, contributing to a better quantification of the impact of AP on PH in Europe.     

Associations between Long-Term Exposure to Chemical Constituents of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) and Mortality in Medicare Enrollees in the Eastern United States

Background:

Several epidemiological studies have reported that long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is associated with higher mortality. Evidence regarding contributions of PM_2.5 constituents is inconclusive.

Objectives:

We assembled a data set of 12.5 million Medicare enrollees (≥ 65 years of age) to determine which PM_2.5 constituents are a) associated with mortality controlling for previous-year PM_2.5 total mass (main effect); and b) elevated in locations exhibiting stronger associations between previous-year PM_2.5 and mortality (effect modification).

Methods:

For 518 PM_2.5 monitoring locations (eastern United States, 2000–2006), we calculated monthly mortality rates, monthly long-term (previous 1-year average) PM_2.5, and 7-year averages (2000–2006) of major PM_2.5 constituents [elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon matter (OCM), sulfate (SO₄^2–), silicon (Si), nitrate (NO₃^–), and sodium (Na)] and community-level variables. We applied a Bayesian hierarchical model to estimate location-specific mortality rates associated with previous-year PM_2.5 (model level 1) and identify constituents that contributed to the spatial variability of mortality, and constituents that modified associations between previous-year PM_2.5 and mortality (model level 2), controlling for community-level confounders.

Results:

One–standard deviation (SD) increases in 7-year average EC, Si, and NO₃^– concentrations were associated with 1.3% [95% posterior interval (PI): 0.3, 2.2], 1.4% (95% PI: 0.6, 2.4), and 1.2% (95% PI: 0.4, 2.1) increases in monthly mortality, controlling for previous-year PM_2.5. Associations between previous-year PM_2.5 and mortality were stronger in combination with 1-SD increases in SO₄^2– and Na.

Conclusions:

Long-term exposures to PM_2.5 and several constituents were associated with mortality in the elderly population of the eastern United States. Moreover, some constituents increased the association between long-term exposure to PM_2.5 and mortality. These results provide new evidence that chemical composition can partly explain the differential toxicity of PM_2.5.

Citation:

Chung Y, Dominici F, Wang Y, Coull BA, Bell ML. 2015. Associations between long-term exposure to chemical constituents of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and mortality in Medicare enrollees in the eastern United States. Environ Health Perspect 123:467–474; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307549     

大气颗粒物PM10和PM2.5中水溶性离子及元素分析

目的了解大气颗粒物PM10与PM2.5中水溶性离子及元素的主要组成及其浓度。方法在北京市城区设置1个采样点,于2006年6月16—18日和6月20—22日采集大气颗粒物PM10和PM2.5。采用离子色谱法测定PM10和PM2.5中8种水溶性离子(SO42-、NO3-、Cl-、NH4 、K 、Na 、Ca2 和Mg2 )的浓度;采用"酸提"法测定其中Ca、Mg、Al、As、Zn、Pb、Cu、V、Mn、Co、Fe、Se、Mo、Ni、Cr和Cd的浓度;采用"水提"法测定其中Zn、Pb、Cu、V、Mn、Co、Fe、Ni、Cr和Cd的浓度。结果PM2.5和PM10中8种水溶性离子平均质量浓度范围分别为0.44～9.16μg/m3和0.69～12.61μg/m3。PM2.5中SO42-和NO3-浓度分别占离子总浓度的30.2%和26.5%。PM10中SO42-和NO3-浓度分别占离子总浓度的29.7%和25.6%。PM2.5和PM10中,"酸提"元素平均质量浓度范围分别为1.06～6607.30ng/m3和1.92～12455.50ng/m3;"水提"元素平均质量浓度范围分别为0.31～189.80ng/m3和0.48～187.45ng/m3。结论水溶性离子是大气颗粒物的主要成分之一,值得关注。     

Indoor/outdoor PM10 and PM2.5 in Bangkok, Thailand

Twenty-four-hour averaged PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations were obtained by using 4-liter-per-minute-pumps and impactors in microenvironments of a busy shopping district and a university hospital campus. In both areas, most people live directly adjacent to their worksites--minimizing the need to measure commuting exposure as part of total daily exposure. Co-located samplers were set in indoor microenvironments, the near-ambient zone of the households, and at nearby streetside central ambient monitoring stations. Smoking and use of other indoor PM sources were recorded daily via questionnaires. Consistent with previous studies, smoking and the use of charcoal stoves increased indoor particulate matter levels. The sampled air-conditioned hospital area had substantially lower particle concentrations than outdoors. A simple total exposure model was used to estimate the human exposure. The averaged ratios of co-located PM2.5/PM10 concentrations in various microenvironments are reported for each location. A single daily indoor average PM10 concentration for all households measured in a given sampling day is calculated for correlation analysis. Results showed that day-to-day fluctuations of these calculated indoor PM10 levels correlated well with near-ambient data and moderately well with ambient data collected at the nearby central monitoring site. This implies that ambient monitors are able to capture the daily variations of indoor PM levels or even personal exposure and may help explain the robust association of ambient PM levels and health effects found in many epidemiological studies. Absolute PM exposures, however, were substantially underestimated by ambient monitors in the shopping district, probably because of strong local sources.     

大气PM10与PM2.5的健康效应比较

可吸入颗粒物（IP）不仅影响气候和空气质量、破坏生态环境和历史文物，而且严重危害人体呼吸系统，是大气颗粒物中对人体健康威胁最大的一类。北京市环保监测中心监测结果显示，2000—2002年，市区PM10的年日均质量浓度均超过国家二级标准60％以上，在空气质量超标日中，首要污染物为PM10的天数最多达到96％。可吸入颗粒物可分为粗粒（空气动力学直径介于2．5～10μm）和细粒（空气动力学直径小于或等于2.5μm，也称为PM2．5）。     

Spatial and temporal variation in PM(2.5) chemical composition in the United States for health effects studies

BACKGROUND: Although numerous studies have demonstrated links between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, the chemical components of the PM mixture that cause injury are unknown. OBJECTIVES: This work characterizes spatial and temporal variability of PM(2.5) (PM with aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 microm) components in the United States; our objective is to identify components for assessment in epidemiologic studies. METHODS: We constructed a database of 52 PM(2.5) component concentrations for 187 U.S. counties for 2000-2005. First, we describe the challenges inherent to analysis of a national PM(2.5) chemical composition database. Second, we identify components that contribute substantially to and/or co-vary with PM(2.5) total mass. Third, we characterize the seasonal and regional variability of targeted components. RESULTS: Strong seasonal and geographic variations in PM(2.5) chemical composition are identified. Only seven of the 52 components contributed >/= 1% to total mass for yearly or seasonal averages [ammonium (NH(4) (+)), elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon matter (OCM), nitrate (NO(3) (-)), silicon, sodium (Na(+)), and sulfate (SO(4) (2-))]. Strongest correlations with PM(2.5) total mass were with NH(4) (+) (yearly), OCM (especially winter), NO(3) (-) (winter), and SO(4) (2-) (yearly, spring, autumn, and summer), with particularly strong correlations for NH(4) (+) and SO(4) (2-) in summer. Components that co-varied with PM(2.5) total mass, based on daily detrended data, were NH(4) (+), SO(4) (2-) (,) OCM, NO(3) (2-), bromine, and EC. CONCLUSIONS: The subset of identified PM(2.5) components should be investigated further to determine whether their daily variation is associated with daily variation of health indicators, and whether their seasonal and regional patterns can explain the seasonal and regional heterogeneity in PM(10) (PM with aerodynamic diameter < 10 microm) and PM(2.5) health risks.     

Concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 particulate material in the atmosphere of Rome

Starting from 1993, various monitoring campaigns were carried out in Rome to determine PM10 and PM2.5. Their results are presented here cumulatively, with the aim of obtaining preliminary information on relationships among these size fractions, in various seasonal periods and in two sites with different characteristics (a road site and an urban background site in a public park). Particles were collected on filter and gravimetrically determined. Both PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations show temporal fluctuations with higher values during winter months. Background concentrations are lower than those contemporaneously measured at the road site only to a limited extent (10-17%). The contribution of PM2.5 to PM10 during the winter semester is higher than during the summer one (67 vs. 52%), with no substantial intersite differences.     

兰州市大气PM10与呼吸系统疾病入院人数的时间序列研究

目的定量评价兰州市大气PM10对居民呼吸系统疾病每日入院人数的影响。方法采用时间序列的半参数广义相加模型(GAM),在控制了长期趋势、星期几效应及气象因子等混杂因素的影响后,分析2001—2005年兰州市PM10与呼吸系统疾病日入院人数的暴露-反应关系,并按性别和年龄层建立模型。结果不同人群的呼吸系统疾病日入院人数相对危险度(RR)在最佳滞后天数(第4天)均有统计学意义。单污染模型中,当PM10日均浓度每升高1个四分位间距(IQR)时,总人群、男性和女性人群、老年人群(年龄≥65岁)、年龄65岁人群日入院人数分别增加2.4%,2.5%,2.9%,3.5%,2.5%。结论 PM10浓度升高会引起呼吸系统疾病入院人数的增加,且均表现为滞后影响,而老年人群(年龄≥65岁)和女性人群对PM10浓度升高更敏感。     

北京市大气PM 10和PM2.5中多环芳烃组分的致突变性

目的研究北京市大气颗粒物中提取的多环芳烃组分的致突变性,并探讨采样点、粒径、季节对多环芳烃致突变活性的影响。方法于2005年7和12月从北京市工业区和商业区冬夏两季采集的可吸入颗粒物(PM10和PM2.5)样本中提取出多环芳烃。采用Ames试验检测该多环芳烃的致突变性。每个多环芳烃样本各设125、250和500μg/皿3个剂量,在加S9和不加S9条件下进行实验。结果受试多环芳烃组分在加S9和不加S9条件下均可引起TA98菌株发生回复突变增加,而且在加入活化系统S9后工业区样本的突变活性明显增加。随剂量增加,突变率升高,除部分低、中浓度组外,其他组的每皿回变菌落数为阴性对照的2倍或2倍以上;各组均存在明显的剂量-反应关系(P<0.01,P<0.05)。工业区多环芳烃样本的回变菌落数均高于商业区。冬季多环芳烃样本诱导的回变菌落数高于夏季样本。同剂量的PM2.5的多环芳烃样本诱导TA98菌株产生的回变菌落数大于PM10的多环芳烃样本。结论多环芳烃样本具有较强的致突变性并且以移码型突变为主。工业区多环芳烃样本主要是间接致突变物。工业区空气样本的多环芳烃组分的致突变性明显高于商业区。同剂量的PM2.5的多环芳烃组分的致突变性大于PM10。冬季颗粒物的多环芳烃组分的致突变性均比夏季组分致突变性强,并且商业区冬夏两季致突变性差异较工业区明显。     

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) association with peripheral artery disease admissions in northeastern United States

Background: Current evidence, on the association of PM_2.5 and peripheral artery disease (PAD) is very sparse. Methods: We use novel PM_2.5 prediction models to investigate associations between chronic and acute PM_2.5 exposures and hospital PAD admissions across the northeast USA. Poisson regression analysis was preformed where daily admission counts in each zip code are regressed against both chronic and acute PM_2.5 exposure, temperature, socio-economic characteristics and time to control for seasonal patterns. Results: Positive significant associations were observed between both chronic and acute exposure to PM_2.5 and PAD hospitalizations. Every 10-μg/m³ increase in acute PM_2.5 exposure was associated with a 0.26 % increase in admissions (CI = 0.08 – 0.45 %) and every 10-μg/m³ increase in chronic PM _2.5 exposure was associated with a 4.4 % increase in admissions (CI = 3.50 – 5.35 %). Conclusions: The study supports the hypothesis that acute and chronic exposure to PM_2.5 can increase the risk of PAD.     

Geographical patterns of heart disease in the Northeastern United States

A 49-county region surrounding the urban corridor from New York through New Jersey to Philadelphia was the focus of an investigation of the spatial patterns of mortality from four types of heart disease: major cardiovascular, acute ischemic, chronic ischemic and cerebrovascular. The data used were age-adjusted mortality rates for white males and white females for the period 1968–1972. Central to the research was interest in the existence of county clusters with similar rates, high and low risk areas and possible associations of mortality rates with environmental and socioeconomic conditions.The tasks completed in this first phase of a projected multi-phase project led to the identification of four country clusters within the region. High major cardiovascular rates appear to make the Southern New Jersey cluster a high risk zone. In contrast, a Central Corridor cluster has relatively low rates for all the diseases. No clear pattern was in evidence for the Northwestern Periphery cluster. Finally, a stark contrast between acute and chronic ischemic rates appeared in the Urban Spur.The next step in this research will be to search for either consistency or deviation from these patterns in the 1973–1976 period. A risk factor data set will be created to analyze the patterns in greater detail.     

贵阳市大气颗粒物PM10、PM2.5日污染特征

于2015年秋季(1月)、夏季(8月)对贵阳市五个区的大气颗粒物(PM10、PM2.5)进行了监测研究。结果发现,贵阳市大气颗粒物污染很轻,8月和11月PM10、PM2.5的超标率都为0;大气颗粒物PM10和PM2.5浓度季节变化大,11月PM10和PM2.5浓度明显大于8月;2个月的监测数据显示5个区PM10和PM2.5日均值浓度变化趋势基本一致,5个区中南明区的PM10和PM2.5浓度最高,花溪区的PM10和PM2.5浓度最低。PM10中PM2.5比重较大,PM2.5粒径小,对人体健康危害很大。     

深圳市部分幼儿园室内空气PM10、PM2.5、PM1.0浓度调查

目的了解深圳市部分幼儿园室内空气中可吸入颗粒物浓度。方法于2011年3—7月采用分层抽样抽取深圳市某区11所幼儿园共89间教室,采用DUSTMATE环境粉尘仪对空气中PM10、PM2.5、PM1.0浓度进行测定。结果PM10最大值为0.396 mg/m3,超出GB/T 18883—2002《室内空气质量标准》限值(<0.15 mg/m3)1.64倍;PM2.5最大值为0.137 mg/m3,超出美国EPA标准(<0.035 mg/m3)2.91倍;PM1.0最大值为0.063 mg/m3。工业区幼儿园教室空气中的PM10、PM2.5、PM1.0浓度均高于商业区和居民区,且差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论本次调查的深圳市部分幼儿园室内空气中PM10、PM2.5浓度较高,尤其是工业区幼儿园,应引起重视并采取综合控制措施。     

北京市采暖期PM2.5与PM10污染特征分析

目的:了解北京市采暖期大气颗粒物PM2,与PM10.的污染特征.方法:在北京市城区设置采样点,采集了2006年3月3～5日、6～8日、8～10日和12～14日PM2.5与PM10,对其中的8种水溶性离子、17种"酸提"元素、12种"水提‘元素、17种多环芳烃及有机碳、元素碳的含量进行了分析.结果:8种水溶性离子总浓度及含碳组分(有机碳 元素碳的质量浓度分别占PM2.5和PM10质量浓度的29.8%、17.5%和21.0%、14.6%;17种"酸提"元素总浓度分别占PM:,币PM..质量浓度的4.8%和5.8%;已测定的17种多环芳烃中以4环和5环为主,二者浓度之和分别占PM2.5与PM10中多环芳烃总浓度的84.9%和86.3%.结论:水溶性离子、含碳组分为采暖期PM2.5和PM10中的主要成分.     

PM10和PM2.5与人类健康效应关系的研究进展

悬浮在空气中的颗粒物,按其空气动力学直径的大小,可分为PM10和PM2.5。2006年,WHO推荐用PM2.5代替PM10作为空气颗粒物浓度的指标。大气颗粒物（PM2.5）中主要包含有机碳、元素碳及碳酸盐碳。建筑扬尘、土壤尘、民用污染（燃煤）和交通污染（机动车尾气排放）为主要来源。北京、上海、西安日PM2.5和PM10日超标浓度皆较高。风速与春季和冬季的PM2.5质量浓度之间呈负相关,PM2.5质量浓度随空气相对湿度增加而增大,相对湿度与PM2.5质量浓度之间有正相关;温度与PM2.5质量浓度之间则无明显相关性。大气PM2.5浓度的升高会引起全死因疾病死亡率、心血管疾病死亡率的增加。大气PM2.5浓度的升高与心血管疾病有关。建议采取加大环境污染企业的治理力度,此外应该降低大城市汽车数量。     

Personal PM(2.5) exposure among wildland firefighters working at prescribed forest burns in southeastern United States

This study investigated occupational exposure to wood and vegetative smoke in a group of 28 forest firefighters at prescribed forest burns in a southeastern U.S. forest during the winters of 2003-2005. During burn activities, 203 individual person-day PM(2.5) and 149 individual person-day CO samples were collected; during non-burn activities, 37 person-day PM(2.5) samples were collected as controls. Time-activity diaries and post-work shift questionnaires were administered to identify factors influencing smoke exposure and to determine how accurately the firefighters' qualitative assessment estimated their personal level of smoke exposure with discrete responses: "none" or "very little," "low," "moderate," "high," and "very high." An average of 6.7 firefighters were monitored per burn, with samples collected on 30 burn days and 7 non-burn days. Size of burn plots ranged from 1-2745 acres (avg = 687.8). Duration of work shift ranged from 6.8-19.4 hr (avg = 10.3 hr) on burn days. Concentration of PM(2.5) ranged from 5.9-2673 μg/m(3) on burn days. Geometric mean PM(2.5) exposure was 280 μg/m(3) (95% CL = 140, 557 μg/m(3), n = 177) for burn day samples, and 16 μg/m(3) (95% CL = 10, 26 μg/m(3), n = 35) on non-burn days. Average measured PM(2.5) differed across levels of the firefighters' categorical self-assessments of exposure (p < 0.0001): none to very little = 120 μg/m(3) (95% CL = 71, 203 μg/m(3)) and high to very high = 664 μg/m(3) (95% CL = 373, 1185 μg/m(3)); p < 0.0001 on burn days). Time-weighted average PM(2.5) and personal CO averaged over the run times of PM(2.5) pumps were correlated (correlation coefficient estimate, r = 0.79; CLs: 0.72, 0.85). Overall occupational exposures to particulate matter were low, but results indicate that exposure could exceed the ACGIH?-recommended threshold limit value of 3 mg/m(3) for respirable particulate matter in a few extreme situations. Self-assessed exposure levels agreed with measured concentrations of PM(2.5). Correlation analysis shows that either PM(2.5) or CO could be used as a surrogate measure of exposure to woodsmoke at prescribed burns.