The prevalence of middle ear pathogens in the outer ear canal and the nasopharyngeal cavity of healthy young adults

Culturing middle ear fluid samples from children with chronic otitis media with effusion (OME) using standard techniques results in the isolation of bacterial species in approximately 30–50% of the cases. Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis, the classic middle ear pathogens of acute otitis media, are involved but, recently, several studies suggested Alloiococcus otitidis as an additional pathogen. In the present study, we used species-specific PCRs to establish the prevalence, in both the nasopharyngeal cavity and the outer ear, of H. influenzae, M. catarrhalis, S. pneumoniae and A. otitidis. The study group consisted of 70 healthy volunteers (aged 19–22 years). The results indicate a high prevalence (>80%) of A. otitidis in the outer ear in contrast to its absence in the nasopharynx. H. influenzae was found in both the outer ear and the nasopharynx (6% and 14%, respectively), whereas S. pneumoniae and M. catarrhalis were found only in the nasopharynx (9% and 34%, respectively). A. otitidis, described as a fastidious organism, were able to be cultured using an optimized culture protocol, with prolonged incubation, which allowed the isolation of A. otitidis in five of the nine PCR-positive samples out of the total of ten samples tested. Given the absence of the outer ear inhabitant A. otitidis from the nasopharynx, its role in the aetiology of OME remains ambiguous because middle ear infecting organisms are considered to invade the middle ear from the nasopharynx through the Eustachian tube.     

Complement activation and expression of membrane regulators in the middle ear mucosa in otitis media with effusion.

The aetiopathogenesis of chronic otitis media with effusion (OME) in children is not yet fully understood. OME is characterized by metaplasia of the epithelium and accumulation of sticky, glue-like effusion in the middle ear containing different mediators of inflammation, including activation fragments of the complement system. Here we examined whether the fluid phase complement activation is reflected in the middle ear mucosa and how the mucosa is protected against the cytolytic activity of complement. Mucosal biopsies from 18 middle ears of children with a history of chronic OME were taken. The biopsies were analysed by immunofluorescence microscopy after staining for complement fragments iC3b/C3c, C3d and C9, and regulators membrane cofactor protein (MCP; CD46), decay-accelerating factor (DAF; CD55) and protectin (CD59). There was a strong staining for iC3b/C3c, and a weaker one for C3d and C9 on the surface of the middle ear epithelial cells of OME patients but not in controls without OME. MCP was expressed on the hyperplastic three to four outer cell layers of the epithelium, while CD59 was expressed throughout the middle ear mucosa. The results suggest a strong ongoing complement activation and consequent inflammation in the middle ear cavity. Unrestricted complement damage of the epithelial lining is prevented by the strong expression of MCP and CD59.     

Primary bilateral tuberculous otitis media with peripheral facial paralysis: a case report and literature review

Tuberculous otitis media (TOM) is a rare disease. This study presents our experience in the diagnosis and treatment of TOM. A 49-year-old female had repeated ear discharge, vertigo, and severe hearing loss for six years, and underwent mastoid surgery four times because she was misdiagnosed with chronic suppurative otitis media. The patient had left-sided facial paralysis for two weeks when she was admitted to our hospital and was managed with radical mastoidectomy and facial nerve decompression. After surgery, facial nerve function gradually improved from grade V to grade II, and the patient was diagnosed with an unusual primary bilateral TOM after tuberculosis smear culture, pathologic examination, and tuberculosis DNA testing by the PCR technique. After anti-tuberculosis therapy, the operative mastoid cavity in the patient was eventually epithelialized and dry. Therefore, this study suggests that, TOM should be actively excluded in patients with uncontrollable ear leakage, massive white granulation tissue and dead bone formation in the ear. Surgical decompression is recommended to prevent permanent facial paralysis, since opening the facial nerve sheath effectively relieves facial nerve compression and edema due to the TOM-induced persistent inflammation and granulation tissue formation.     

Multidetector row CT demonstration of inner and middle ear structures

The aim of this study is to evaluate the anatomical details of the inner ear and middle ear, using multidetector row CT. Temporal bone CT scans were obtained using 16-detector row CT scanner (Lightspeed 16, General Electric Medical Systems, Milwaukee, WI) in 30 patients with dizziness, vertigo, or hearing loss. The three-dimensional (3D) images were reconstructed with volume rendering techniques. The 3D images were reviewed by two radiologists and scored by using a three-point quality rating for qualitative assessment of the 23 representative structures of the middle and inner ear. The malleus, incus, and facial nerve canal were identified in all patients. The incudomalleolar joint appeared fused in all patients. The stapes were seen clearly in 27 (90%) of 30 patients except in three patients. Among the three remaining patients, there was one who had effusions in the middle ear cavity. Another patient had left cholesteatoma. The third patient had normal middle ear cavity. The cochlea and the three semicircular canals (anterior, posterior, and lateral) were well demonstrated in 29 (97%) of 30 patients except for one old woman with osteoporosis. Sixteen-detector row CT imaging of temporal bone with advanced 3D reformation yields state-of-the-art anatomical details of the temporal region useful to address anatomical localization issues and ease conceptual structural learning.     

Microsurgical anatomy of the facial nerve trunk

Dissection and manipulation of the facial nerve (FN) trunk between its exit from the cranial base through the stylomastoid foramen (SMF) and its bifurcation is a critical step in various otologic, plastic and neurosurgical procedures. This study demonstrates the anatomical relationships and variability of the FN trunk with emphasis on some important morphometric data, particularly with relevance to hypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis (HFA). Bilateral microsurgical dissection was performed on twenty-three human cadavers fixed with formalin. The whole trunk of the FN was exposed, its diameter at the SMF and its length were measured, its branches were observed and the site of its bifurcation was determined. Anastomotic connections with other nerves and blood supply of the trunk were studied. The FN invariably emerged from the cranial base through the SMF. Its diameter upon its emergence from the foramen was 2.66 +/- 0.55 mm. Two branches consistently originated from the trunk: the posterior auricular nerve and the nerve to the digastric muscle. Less consistent were the communicating branch with the glossopharyngeal nerve and the nerve to the stylohyoid muscle. The bifurcation of the FN occurred before its penetration into the parotid gland in 15% of cases and within the gland in 85%. The length of the FN trunk was 16.44 +/- 3.2 mm. Anastomoses between the FN and other nerves were observed in one-third of the dissections. The blood supply to the FN trunk was provided by the stylomastoid artery that was identified in 91% of cases. Understanding the microsurgical anatomy of the FN trunk is essential for performing any surgical procedure in the relevant region. Surgical implications of this study are presented with emphasis on HFA surgery.     

Eosinophils are activated in middle ear mucosa and middle ear effusion of patients with intractable otitis media associated with bronchial asthma

BACKGROUND: Although patients with intractable otitis media associated with bronchial asthma have extensive accumulation of eosinophils in the middle ear mucosa and middle ear effusion, systematic histological and immunohistochemical studies have not been performed. OBJECTIVES: To clarify the pathogenesis of middle ear diseases, we carried out immunohistochemical studies on middle ear specimens, particularly focusing on the characteristics of accumulated eosinophils. METHODS: Middle ear specimens obtained from eight adult patients and from 17 controls were immunohistochemically stained using monoclonal antibodies against EG1, EG2, mast cell tryptase, IgA and IgE. The concentration of eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) in middle ear effusion samples was also measured. RESULTS: In the asthmatic patients, severe round-cell infiltration was observed in the submucosa and most of the EG1-positive cells were also EG2-positive. In the control patients, the mucosa showed a fibrotic change with a few inflammatory cells, and EG1- or EG2-positive cells were quite few. The expression of IgE was found not only on the surface of mast cells but also within the plasma cells in the asthmatic patients, and the number of IgE-positive cells was about twice as high as that of mast cells. A significantly higher concentration of ECP was noted in middle ear effusion obtained from the asthmatic patients than that from the control patients. CONCLUSION: Most of the eosinophils in the middle ear mucosa and middle ear effusion were activated, resulting in degranulation and release of ECP, and local IgE production occurs in the middle ear mucosa, indicating that the intractable inflammation is closely associated with IgE-mediated late phase response with eosinophil accumulation.     

茎乳孔及其邻近结构的应用解剖学研究

在50个完整颅骨(100例)上观测茎乳孔及其邻近结构。就茎突基部是否为孔之一个壁对茎乳孔进行了分型;观察了茎乳孔的数目及各孔的出现规律;测量了茎乳孔(主孔)的大小及其与邻近结构的距离,并对茎乳孔及颈静脉窝进行了定位;以期为颌面外科、药物注射和针灸等提供解剖学资料。     

舌下神经-面神经直接侧端吻合的应用解剖学研究

目的:为舌下神经-面神经直接侧端吻合提供解剖学依据。方法:①在21例防腐固定的成人头颈部标本上,测量面神经干及其颞骨内乳突段、鼓室段长度;面神经干分叉处至舌下神经颈部的最短距离。②3例新鲜标本取舌下神经及面神经干行组织学检测,测定其神经束数目和横切面积。③2例标本摹拟术式设计。结果:舌下神经干在寰椎水平为单束形式,横切面积为(8.5±0.3)mm2;面神经干在出茎乳孔处为单束形式,横切面积为(5.1±0.2)mm2;面神经干的长度为(15.7±2.0)mm,颞骨内面神经乳突段的长度为(14.6±1.5)mm、鼓室段的长度为(9.6±1.2)mm;面神经干分叉处至舌下神经颈部的最短距离为(17.2±2.3)mm。结论:舌下神经-面神经直接侧端吻合治疗面瘫具有可行性。     

颧骨缩小术的临床应用解剖

目的 :为更好地开展颧骨缩小术并减少其并发症提供解剖学基础。方法 :用巨微解剖的方法观察 13例防腐成人头部和 9例新鲜成人头部标本 ;用断面解剖的方法观察 2例防腐成人头部标本。结果 :①面神经颞支在颧弓下缘出腮腺后斜向前上方行走 ,相对集中在颧弓中部越过颧弓并逐渐分支 ,达颞部已分支成网。②颧支出腮腺后分为深、浅两支 ;深支平行于颧弓下缘前行 ,在距颧大肌起点 (1.2± 0 .3 )cm处进入颧大肌的深面 ;浅支斜向前上方行走 ,在距颧大肌起点 (0 .6± 0 .2 )cm处跨过颧大肌的浅面。③冠突与颧骨间的距离为 (12 .3± 3 .6)mm及该处颧骨的厚度为 (8.8± 2 .3 )mm ,冠突与颧弓间的距离为 (6.5± 1.2 )mm及该处颧弓的厚度为 (3 .3± 0 .4)mm。结论 :在骨膜下操作 ,可减少面神经损伤 ;在上颌骨外侧壁与颧骨眶外侧凸的连线之外部位行颧骨磨削或截骨 ,可避免破坏上颌窦和眼眶。     

Microsurgical anatomy of the facial nerve

The facial nerve connections and pathways from the cortex to the brainstem are intricate and complicated. The extra‐axial part of the facial nerve leaves the lateral part of the pontomedullary sulcus and enters the temporal bone through the internal acoustic meatus. In the temporal bone, the facial nerve branches into fibers innervating the glands and tongue. After it emerges from the temporal bone it supplies various facial muscles. It contains a motor, general sensory, special sensory, and autonomic components. The physician needs comprehensive knowledge of the anatomy and courses of the facial nerve to diagnose and treat lesions and diseases of it so that surgical complications due to facial nerve injury can be avoided. This review describes the microsurgical anatomy of the facial nerve and illustrates its anatomy in relation to the surrounding bone, connective, and neurovascular structures.     

P物质对猫分泌性中耳炎中耳积液的影响

采用免疫组化ＡＢＣ－ＧＤＮ及图象分析技术研究家猫ＳＯＭ中耳粘膜ＳＰ含量的变化与中耳积液的关系，并观察ＳＰ受体拮抗剂Ｓｐａｎｔｉｄｅ及组胺Ｈ２受体了阻滞剂Ｃｉｍｅｔｉｄｉｎ对中耳积液的影响。结果发现：在ＳＯＭ条件下，中耳粘膜ＳＰ含量有逐渐增多趋势，并和中耳积液量呈正相关。     

Morphogenesis of the middle ear ossicles and spatial relationships with the external and inner ears during the embryonic period

We describe the three‐dimensional morphogenesis of the middle ear ossicles (MEOs) according to Carnegie stage (CS) in human embryos. Seventeen samples including 33 MEOs from CS18 to 23 were selected from the Kyoto Collection. The primordia of the MEOs and related structures were histologically observed and three‐dimensionally reconstructed from digital images. The timing of chondrogenesis was variable among structures. The stapes was recognizable as a vague condensation of the mesenchymal cells in all samples from CS18, whereas the malleus and incus were recognizable at CS19. Chondrogenesis of all MEOs was evident in all samples after CS21. The chondrocranium was recognizable in all samples by CS18, and the perichondrium border of the auricular cartilage and otic capsule was distinct in all samples at CS23. At CS19, the MEOs were positioned in the anterior to posterior direction, following the order malleus, incus, stapes, which adjusted gradually during development. The MEOs connected in all samples after CS22. The stapes was located close to the vestibular part of the inner ear, although the basal part was not differentiated into the “footplate” form, even at CS23. The handles of the malleus were close to the tubotympanic recess at CS23, but were distant from the external auditory meatus. Determining the timeline of the formation of MEOs and connection of the external and inner ears can be informative for understanding hearing loss caused by failure of this connection. These data may provide a useful standard for morphogenesis, and will contribute to distinguishing between normal and abnormal MEO development. Anat Rec, 299:1325–1337, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Imaging microscopy of the middle and inner ear: Part II: MR microscopy

Anatomic definition of the membranous labyrinth in the clinical setting remains limited despite significant technological advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Recent developments in ultra-high resolution imaging for use in the research laboratory on small animals and pathologic specimens have given rise to the field of imaging microscopy. We have delineated for the first time the labyrinthine structures in a human temporal bone cadaver specimen using these novel techniques. This approach to the study of the middle and inner ear avoids tissue destruction inherent in histological preparations using standard light microscopy techniques. Part I of this series focused on bony middle and inner ear anatomy with MicrCT. In Part II, we present high-resolution MicroMR images to highlight the utility of this technique in teaching radiologists and otolaryngologists clinically relevant anatomy focusing on the membranous labyrinth. This anatomy can be further enhanced using 3D volume-rendered images. It is hoped that familiarity with these ex vivo anatomic techniques will encourage further developments in the field of high-resolution clinical imaging for patients with temporal bone pathologies.     

Imaging microscopy of the middle and inner ear: Part I: CT microscopy

Anatomic definition of the middle ear and bony labyrinth in the clinical setting remains limited despite significant technological advances in computed tomography (CT). Recent developments in ultra-high resolution imaging for use in the research laboratory on small animals and pathologic specimens have given rise to the field of imaging microscopy. We have taken advantage of this technique to image a human temporal bone cadaver specimen to delineate middle ear and labyrinthine structures, only seen previously using standard light microscopy. This approach to the study of the inner ear avoids tissue destruction inherent in histological preparations. We present high-resolution MicroCT images of the middle ear and bony labyrinth to highlight the utility of this technique in teaching radiologists and otolaryngologists clinically relevant temporal bone anatomy. This study is not meant to function as a complete anatomic atlas of the temporal bone. We have selected several structures that are routinely delineated on clinical scanners to highlight the utility of imaging microscopy in displaying critical anatomic relationships in three orthogonal planes. These anatomic relationships can be further enhanced using 3D volume rendering.     

后鼓室的应用解剖学研究

以100侧成人正常颞骨标本为材料,对整个后鼓室进行形态学观察。后鼓室以锥隆起为中心,借面神经管凸,岬小桥,锥体嵴,鼓索嵴等为标志,分为卵圆窗龛后隐窝,鼓室窦,外侧鼓室窦,面经验隐窝。面经神管与面神经隐窝的关系恒定,均位于其内侧壁,埋藏较浅;面神经管乳突段与外侧鼓室窦的关系较复杂,其埋藏位置,深浅与后者的型别有关。本文提出了根据外侧鼓室窦型别预测面神经乳突段的方法。还对鼓索嵴,岬小桥,锥体嵴的形态改变对后鼓室各窝窦间的相互关系的影响情况进行了观察,并探讨了其临床意义。     

面神经在颞骨内改道以延长其可利用长度的应用解剖

目的:探讨将面神经在颞骨内改道,以延长面神经颅外段(总干)可利用长度,解决颌面部外科手术中面神经总干长度不足问题。方法:在手术显微镜下,对20例(40侧)经福尔马林固定尸体头部标本进行解剖,观测面神经在颞骨内改道后颅外段延长的可利用长度。结果:①仅作乳突段向外耳道后壁及向颞骨浅面改道,可延长面神经总干长(7.1±0.3)mm。②鼓室段及乳突段联合向外耳道后壁及向颞骨浅面改道,可延长面神经总干长(13.4±0.6)mm,经统计学处理两者有显著性差异(P<0.05)。结论:将面神经鼓室段及乳突段联合向外耳道后壁及颞骨浅面改道,能有效延长面神经总干长度,是解决颌面部外科手术中面神经长度不足的有效方法。     

Malakoplakia of middle ear: a case report

Malakoplakia of the mastoid cavity occurring in a 10-year-old boy is reported. Malakoplakia of the middle ear does not previously appear to have been recorded. The patient has had repeated ear infections and an episode of meningitis. Clinical and histological features are described. Possible pathogenesis is discussed.