IL-33在脑缺血再灌注小鼠脑内的表达和细胞定位

目的:通过建立脑缺血再灌注小鼠模型,观察白细胞介素-33(IL-33)阳性细胞在脑缺血再灌注小鼠大脑中的表达和定位情况,初步探讨IL-33在缺血性脑卒中中的作用。方法:采用线栓法制作右侧大脑中动脉阻塞(MCAO)建立脑缺血再灌注小鼠模型,利用TTC染色检测MCAO后脑梗死形成情况,采用免疫荧光组织化学染色法检测IL-33在脑缺血再灌注小鼠大脑中的表达。结果:成功建立脑缺血再灌注小鼠模型,脑缺血再灌注可引起小鼠大脑内IL-33表达升高;脑缺血再灌注小鼠模型脑内广泛表达IL-33。IL-33在神经元、星形胶质细胞、小胶质细胞内均有表达。结论:脑缺血再灌注小鼠脑内IL-33表达增加,IL-33可能参与小鼠缺氧缺血性脑损伤过程。     

IL-1, IL-18, and IL-33 families of cytokines

Summary: The interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-18, and IL-33 families of cytokines are related by mechanism of origin, receptor structure, and signal transduction pathways utilized. All three cytokines are synthesized as precursor molecules and cleaved by the enzyme caspase-1 before or during release from the cell. The NALP-3 inflammasome is of crucial importance in generating active caspase-1. The IL-1 family contains two agonists, IL-1α and IL-1β, a specific inhibitor, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), and two receptors, the biologically active type IL-1R and inactive type II IL-1R. Both IL-1RI and IL-33R utilize the same interacting accessory protein (IL-1RAcP). The balance between IL-1 and IL-1Ra is important in preventing disease in various organs, and excess production of IL-1 has been implicated in many human diseases. The IL-18 family also contains a specific inhibitor, the IL-18-binding protein (IL-18BP), which binds IL-18 in the fluid phase. The IL-18 receptor is similar to the IL-1 receptor complex, including a single ligand-binding chain and a different interacting accessory protein. IL-18 provides an important link between the innate and adaptive immune responses. Newly described IL-33 binds to the orphan IL-1 family receptor T1/ST2 and stimulates T-helper 2 responses as well as mast cells.     

The biological paths of IL-1 family members IL-18 and IL-33

Cytokines are key mediators of the immune system, and few have been more thoroughly studied than those of the IL-1 family. IL-1α and IL-1β are the founding members and now celebrate 25 years since their cloning. In that time, IL-1-directed research has illuminated many aspects of cytokine biology and innate immunity. The family is now recognized to include 11 total members, including IL-18 and IL-33, which are the topic of this review. These two inflammatory cytokines are expressed broadly, and their actions influence a variety of physiologic responses involved in inflammation and immunity. The purpose of this article is not to provide an exhaustive review of IL-18 and IL-33 but rather, to summarize what is known about their key functions and to provide perspective on their similarities and differences.     

IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 down-regulate monocyte-chemoattracting protein-1 (MCP-1) production in activated intestinal epithelial cells

Several studies have demonstrated that intestinal epithelial cells play a major role in the initiation and perpetuation of intestinal inflammation by secreting proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. MCP-1 is suggested to be a chemokine that plays a major part during intestinal inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Immunoregulatory cytokines such as IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 have been described to exert anti-inflammatory properties on various cell types. The aim of our study was to determine the effect of Th2 cytokines on the production of MCP-1 by activated intestinal epithelial cells. We examined Caco-2 cells as well as intestinal epithelial cells which were isolated from surgical specimens. Production of the chemokine MCP-1 was determined under stimulated and non-stimulated conditions. IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 were added to stimulated epithelial cells under various culture conditions. Supernatants were analysed for cytokine concentrations using ELISAs. Under stimulation with physiological agents like IL-1β or tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), we observed markedly increased concentrations of MCP-1 in supernatants of Caco-2 cells and intestinal epithelial cells. IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 all had the capacity to down-regulate the production of MCP-1 in Caco-2 cells as well as in freshly isolated epithelial cells. Caco-2 cells which were primed with Th2 cytokines 24 h before stimulation were subsequently decreased in their ability to be stimulated by IL-1β or TNF-α for MCP-1 production. As MCP-1 has been shown to play a major role during intestinal inflammation, the in vitro suppression of MCP-1 in enterocytes suggests the in vivo use of regulatory cytokines in patients with active IBD.     

Identification of IL-34 in teleost fish: Differential expression of rainbow trout IL-34, MCSF1 and MCSF2, ligands of the MCSF receptor

The mononuclear phagocyte system is composed of monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells and has crucial roles in inflammation, autoimmunity, infection, cancer, organ transplantation and in maintaining organismal homeostasis. Interleukin-34 (IL-34) and macrophage colony stimulating factor (MCSF), both signalling through the MCSF receptor, regulate the mononuclear phagocyte system. A single IL-34 and MCSF gene are present in tetrapods. Two types of MCSF exist in teleost fish which is resulted from teleost-wide whole genome duplication. In this report, we first identified and sequence analysed six IL-34 genes in five teleost fish, rainbow trout, fugu, Atlantic salmon, catfish and zebrafish. The fish IL-34 molecules had a higher identity within fish group but low identities to IL-34s from birds (27.2–33.8%) and mammals (22.2–31.4%). However, they grouped with tetrapod IL-34 molecules in phylogenetic tree analysis, had a similar 7 exon/6 intron gene organisation, and genes in the IL-34 loci were syntenically conserved. In addition, the regions of the four main helices, along with a critical N-glycosylation site were well conserved. Taken together these data suggest that the teleost IL-34 genes described in this report are orthologues of tetrapod IL-34.Comparative expression study of the three trout MCSFR ligands revealed that IL-34, MCSF1 and MCSF2 are differentially expressed in tissues and cell lines. The expression of MCSF1 and MCSF2 showed great variance in different tissues and cell lines, suggesting a role in the differentiation and maintenance of specific macrophage lineages in specific locations. The relatively high levels of IL-34 expression across different tissues suggests a homeostatic role of IL-34 for the macrophage lineage in fish. One striking observation in the present study was the lack of induction of MCSF1 and MCSF2 expression but the quick induction of IL-34 expression by PAMPs and inflammatory cytokines in cell lines and primary head kidney macrophages in rainbow trout. In a parasitic proliferative kidney disease (PKD) model, the expression of IL-34 but not the dominant MCSF2 was affected by PKD, suggesting an involvement of macrophage function in this disease model. Thus IL-34 expression is sensitive to inflammatory stimuli and may regulate macrophage biology once up-regulated.     

IL-33 signalling in liver immune cells enhances drug-induced liver injury and inflammation

Objective and design

The aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of IL-33/ST2 axis in the onset and progression of acute liver injury using a mice model of drug-induced liver injury (DILI).

Material and treatments

DILI was induced by overdose administration of acetaminophen (APAP) by oral gavage in wild-type BALB/c, ST2-deficient mice and in different bone marrow chimeras. Neutrophils were depleted by anti-Ly6G and macrophages with clodronate liposomes (CLL).

Methods

Blood and liver were collected for biochemical, immunologic and genetic analyses. Mice were imaged by confocal intravital microscopy and liver non-parenchymal cells and hepatocytes were isolated for flow cytometry, genetic and immunofluorescence studies.

Results

Acetaminophen overdose caused a massive necrosis and accumulation of immune cells within the liver, concomitantly with IL-33 and chemokine release. Liver non-parenchymal cells were the major sensors for IL-33, and amongst them, neutrophils were the major players in amplification of the inflammatory response triggered by IL-33/ST2 signalling pathway.

Conclusion

Blockage of IL-33/ST2 axis reduces APAP-mediated organ injury by dampening liver chemokine release and activation of resident and infiltrating liver non-parenchymal cells.

     

IL-34, the rationale for its expression in physiological and pathological conditions

IL-34 is a cytokine that shares one of its receptors with CSF-1. It has long been thought that CSF-1 receptor (CSF-1R) receives signals only from CSF-1, but the identification of IL-34 reversed this stereotype. Regardless of low structural homology, IL-34 and CSF-1 emanate similar downstream signaling through binding to CSF-1R and provoke similar but different physiological events afterward. In addition to CSF-1R, protein-tyrosine phosphatase (PTP)-ζ and Syndecan-1 were also identified as IL-34 receptors and shown to be at play. Although IL-34 expression is limited to particular tissues in physiological conditions, previous studies have revealed that it is upregulated in several diseases. In cancer, IL-34 is produced by several types of tumor cells and contributes to therapy resistance and disease progression. A recent study has demonstrated that tumor cell-derived IL-34 abrogates immunotherapy efficacy through myeloid cell remodeling. On the other hand, IL-34 expression is downregulated in some brain and dermal disorders. Despite accumulating insights, our understanding of IL-34 may not be even close to its nature. This review aims to comprehensively describe the physiological and pathological roles of IL-34 based on its similarity and differences to CSF-1 and discuss the rationale for its disease-dependent expression pattern.     

血清IL-22与IL-33在类风湿性关节炎合并间质性肺病中的表达及临床意义

探讨类风湿性关节炎合并间质性肺病患者血清IL-22、IL-33水平及临床意义。53例RA患者,分为RA-ILD组和单纯RA组,并与30例健康者对照研究。用Luminex液相芯片技术分别检测血清IL-22、IL-33水平,观察比较各组细胞因子表达情况,并分析相关性。1治疗前RA组及RA-ILD组两组患者年龄、关节肿胀数、压痛数及ESR、CRP、DAS28的比较,差异无统计学意义(均P>0.05)。2治疗前血清IL-22、IL-33在单纯RA组和RA-ILD组的表达均高于健康对照组,差异有统计学意义(均P<0.01),且RA-ILD组较单纯RA组显著增高(均P<0.01)。3RA-ILD患者血清IL-22、IL-33浓度水平与RF、CCP呈正相关(均P<0.05),但与ESR、CRP、DAS28无直线相关性(均P>0.05)。4RA-ILD组患者治疗后血清IL-22、IL-33水平较治疗前明显下降,差异有统计学意义(均P<0.05)。IL-22、IL-33可能参与了RA的发病,同时在RA-ILD发病过程中起重要作用;IL-22、IL-33高表达可作为RA-ILD发病预测及疗效判定的重要参考指标。     

The role of the IL-33/IL-1RL1 axis in mast cell and basophil activation in allergic disorders

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a recently discovered cytokine that belongs to the IL-1 superfamily and acts as an important regulator in several allergic disorders. It is considered to function as an alarmin, or danger cytokine, that is released upon structural cell damage. IL-33 activates several immune cells, including Th2 cells, mast cells and basophils, following its interaction with a cell surface heterodimer consisting of an IL-1 receptor-related protein ST2 (IL-1RL1) and IL-1 receptor accessory protein (IL-1RAcP). This activation leads to the production of a variety of Th2-like cytokines that mediate allergic-type immune responses. Thus, IL-33 appears to be a double-edged sword because, in addition to its important contribution to host defence, it exacerbates allergic responses, such as allergic rhinitis and asthma. A major purported mechanism of IL-33 in allergy is the activation of mast cells to produce a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the genetics and physiology of IL-33 and IL-1RL1 and its association with different allergic diseases by focusing on its effects on mast cells and basophils.     

Intelectin contributes to allergen-induced IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP expression and type 2 response in asthma and atopic dermatitis

The epithelial and epidermal innate cytokines IL-25, IL-33, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) have pivotal roles in the initiation of allergic inflammation in asthma and atopic dermatitis (AD). However, the mechanism by which the expression of these innate cytokines is regulated remains unclear. Intelectin (ITLN) is expressed in airway epithelial cells and promotes allergic airway inflammation. We hypothesized that ITLN is required for allergen-induced IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP expression. In two asthma models, Itln knockdown reduced allergen-induced increases in Il-25, Il-33, and Tslp and development of type 2 response, eosinophilic inflammation, mucus overproduction, and airway hyperresponsiveness. Itln knockdown also inhibited house dust mite (HDM)-induced early upregulation of Il-25, Il-33, and Tslp in a model solely inducing airway sensitization. Using human airway epithelial cells, we demonstrated that HDM-induced increases in ITLN led to phosphorylation of epidermal growth factor receptor and extracellular-signal regulated kinase, which were required for induction of IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP expression. In two AD models, Itln knockdown suppressed expression of Il-33, Tslp, and Th2 cytokines and eosinophilic inflammation. In humans, ITLN1 expression was significantly increased in asthmatic airways and in lesional skin of AD. We conclude that ITLN contributes to allergen-induced Il-25, Il-33, and Tslp expression in asthma and AD.     

Induction of IL-33 expression and activity in central nervous system glia

IL-33 is a novel member of the IL-1 cytokine family and a potent inducer of type 2 immunity, as mast cells and Th2 CD4+ T cells respond to IL-33 with the induction of type 2 cytokines such as IL-13. IL-33 mRNA levels are extremely high in the CNS, and CNS glia possess both subunits of the IL-33R, yet whether IL-33 is produced by and affects CNS glia has not been studied. Here, we demonstrate that pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) significantly increase IL-33 mRNA and protein expression in CNS glia. Interestingly, IL-33 was localized to the nucleus of astrocytes. Further, CNS glial and astrocyte-enriched cultures treated with a PAMP followed by an ATP pulse had significantly higher levels of supernatant IL-1beta and IL-33 than cultures receiving any single treatment (PAMP or ATP). Supernatants from PAMP + ATP-treated glia induced the secretion of IL-6, IL-13, and MCP-1 from the MC/9 mast cell line in a manner similar to exogenous recombinant IL-33. Further, IL-33 levels and activity were increased in the brains of mice infected with the neurotropic virus Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. IL-33 also had direct effects on CNS glia, as IL-33 induced various innate immune effectors in CNS glia, and this induction was greatly amplified by IL-33-stimulated mast cells. In conclusion, these results implicate IL-33-producing astrocytes as a potentially critical regulator of innate immune responses in the CNS.     

抗IL-33全人源scFv-Fc抗体的可溶性表达与鉴定

通过对通用型在细菌中可溶性表达scFv-Fc抗体载体的构建,对抗IL-33全人源scFv-Fc抗体进行可溶性表达并鉴定。扩增人IgG1Fc片段及前期筛选的抗IL-33单链抗体(scFv)DNA,分别插入到改建的载体pLZ16中,构建可溶性重组表达pLZ16-scFv-Fc质粒。将重组质粒转入E.coli DH5αF’,菌落经PCR和测序验证表明我们成功构建了pLZ16-scFv-Fc重组质粒。将阳性克隆子分别于32℃IPTG表达5h或25℃无IPTG表达50h,用HRP标记抗人IgG1Fc抗体进行检测,结果显示25℃无IPTG表达50h时,表达蛋白分泌在细菌周质间,可明显检测到scFv-Fc的可溶性表达;western blotting结果显示,25℃无IPTG表达的scFv-Fc为65kD左右,其可溶性表达量较32℃表达量高。本研究成功构建了pLZ16-scFv-Fc重组质粒,并在E.coli DH5αF’中成功可溶性表达抗IL-33全人源scFv-Fc抗体。     

GM-CSF, IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 gene expression and cytokine production in human duodenal fibroblasts stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, IL-1 alpha and TNF-alpha.

The role of mucosal fibroblasts in intestinal inflammatory reactions is not known. In this study, we demonstrate that fibroblasts grown from histologically normal human duodenal biopsy tissues expressed mRNA genes for granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) when stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or IL-1 alpha. The increased mRNA expression of GM-CSF, IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6 and IL-8 in response to IL-1 alpha and LPS stimulation was time- and dose-dependent. In contrast, IL-10 was weakly expressed when fibroblasts were stimulated with LPS, IL-1 alpha or tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), but the expression was enhanced in the presence of cycloheximide combined with optimal concentrations of LPS, IL-1 alpha or TNF-alpha, IL-1 alpha was a more potent stimulator than LPS for GM-CSF, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 expression, but not for IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta. Increased GM-CSF, IL-6 and IL-8 gene expression was associated with the production of cytokine proteins in culture supernatant, but IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta remained undetectable. Dexamethasone suppressed both gene expression and protein production of GM-CSF, IL-6 and IL-8 when fibroblasts were exposed to IL-1 alpha. TNF-alpha stimulated the release of GM-CSF, IL-6 and IL-8 and, combined with IL-1 alpha, cytokine production was enhanced synergistically. Finally, both LPS and IL-1 alpha up-regulated ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 gene expression. These findings implicate duodenal fibroblasts in the initiation and/or regulation of intestinal inflammation.     

Escherichia coli-induced expression of IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6 and IL-8 in normal human renal tubular epithelial cells

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the IL-1 family cytokines, in addition to IL-6 and IL-8, could be induced in normal human cortical epithelial cells in response to bacterial stimuli. Human renal tissue was obtained from 9 patients undergoing elective tumour nephrectomy. Renal cortical epithelial cells of tubular origin were prepared from the unaffected tissue. The proximal tubular cells were stimulated for 2, 6 and 24 h with a heat-inactivated pyelonephritogenic Escherichia coli strain DS-17. Cultured unstimulated tubular cells served as controls. IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-alpha, G-CSF and GM-CSF were analysed using immunohistochemistry at the single cell level. The nonstimulated cells were found to express low levels of IL-6 and IL-8 (mean value < 3% of total cells). In contrast, E. coli exposure resulted in significantly increased incidences of IL-6 and IL-8 expressing cells (mean values approximately 18% of total cells) peaking within two hours of stimulation (P < 0.008 and P < 0.02 versus non-stimulated cells, respectively). A gradual decrease was thereafter observed at 6 and 24 h, respectively, although persistently higher compared to controls. A different kinetic response was found for IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta and IL-1 receptor antagonist-expressing cells, which peaked 24 h after E. coli stimulation (mean values 3--10%) (P < 0.008, P < 0.02, P < 0.02 versus non-stimulated cells, respectively). Low levels of TNF-alpha and GM-CSF were found in 3 of the 9 donated epithelial cells, peaking at 2 h, and IL-10 and G-CSF producing cells in 1 patient each. In conclusion we found that heat-inactivated pyelonephritic E. coli induced a proinflammatory cytokine response in the normal human proximal tubular cells including the IL-1 family, IL-6 and IL-8.     

抑郁症患者血清 Galectin-3、Netrin-1、IL-33水平与其认知功能损害的关系

目的 探讨抑郁症患者血清半乳糖凝集素-3(Galectin-3)、神经轴突导向因子-1(Netrin-1)、白介素-33(IL-33)水平表达,分析其与患者认知功能损害的关系.方法 选取2016年1月至2019年12月我科收治的抑郁症患者130例作为研究对象(抑郁症组).同期,另选取我院体检健康志愿者100例(对照组)...     

CCK-8对LPS攻击小鼠IL-1β、IL-6、IL-4、IL-10表达的影响

目的： 观察LPS攻击小鼠IL-1β、IL-6、IL-4、IL-10的动态变化规律及八肽胆囊收缩素（CCK-8）对其表达的影响。方法: 将小鼠分为4组：对照组、LPS组（腹腔注射LPS）、LPS+CCK-8组（注射LPS前 30 min 腹腔注射CCK-8）及CCK-8组（单独注射CCK-8）。用ELISA及PT-PCR方法检测各组小鼠血清、肺组织中IL-1β、IL-6、IL-4、IL-10的含量及mRNA的表达情况。结果: LPS攻击可使小鼠血清及肺组织中 IL-1β、IL-6、IL-4、IL-10蛋白及mRNA的表达增加，预先注入CCK-8可显著抑制IL-1β、IL-6的表达，并使 IL-4、IL-10的表达进一步增加。结论: CCK-8可能通过抑制LPS攻击小鼠IL-1β、IL-6的表达和进一步增加 IL-4、IL-10的表达参与抗炎反应过程，从而减轻LPS引起的肺组织炎症反应。     

The curious case of IL-33 in homeostasis and infection

The importance of interleukin (IL)-33 in promoting effective antiviral immune responses is evident, yet the critical cellular sources of IL-33 in homeostasis and infection are largely unknown. In this issue of the European Journal of Immunology, Aparicio-Domingo et al. [Eur. J. Immunol. 2021. 51: 76–90] explore the main source of IL-33 expression in lymph nodes (LNs) and dissect its role in LN homeostasis and antiviral adaptive immune response. The authors reveal that fibroblastic reticular cells and lymphatic endothelial cells are both producing IL-33 in steady-state LNs. Remarkably, however, by using cell-type specific deletion approaches, the authors demonstrate that exclusively fibroblastic reticular cells, and not lymphatic endothelial cells, are the critical cellular source for promoting antiviral CD8⁺ T-cell responses upon infection. These findings provide an important insight into the role of specific LN stromal cell subsets as potent modulators of antiviral immunity.