Usefulness of pulmonary arterial flow discordance to identify pulmonary embolism

The present study was undertaken to determine the sensitivity and specificity of echocardiography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism (PE). The study consisted of 2 stages. First, 600 patients were enrolled to measure bilateral pulmonary blood flow by echocardiography. Using multidetector row computed tomography, 200 subjects were diagnosed with pulmonary hypertension and 100 with defined PE. Another 300 subjects without cardiopulmonary distress served as controls. The time-velocity integral (TVI) and flow volume of both pulmonary arteries were obtained. The percentage differences in bilateral pulmonary arterial TVI (DeltaTVI/mean) were 12.0 +/- 9.3%, 13.8 +/- 12.1%, and 38.6 +/- 14.9% for controls, subjects with pulmonary hypertension, and subjects with PE, respectively. The percentage differences in bilateral pulmonary flow (Deltaflow/mean) were 15.1 +/- 11.7%, 17.6 +/- 14.9%, and 36.8 +/- 17.5% for controls, subjects with pulmonary hypertension, and subjects with PE, respectively. By receiver-operating characteristic curve analysis, the cut-off points for DeltaTVI/mean and Deltaflow/mean to identify PE were 25% and 26.5%, respectively. In the second part of study, the accuracy of DeltaTVI/mean and Deltaflow/mean to screen 300 patients with suspected PE was tested. Echocardiography provided high degrees of sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of PE. In conclusion, bilateral pulmonary arterial flow measurement is a simple and useful test to assess the possibility of PE.     

Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is often unrecognized or misdiagnosed because of the lack of specificity of clinical signs and symptoms. PE shares many of the clinical features of pneumonia and is therefore often unrecognized in elderly patients who present with low-grade fever, modest leukocytosis, and pulmonary infiltrates. Assessment of clinical risk factors increases the usefulness of diagnostic tests. The accuracy of diagnosis is improved if specific tests are performed. Ventilation-perfusion lung scans, noninvasive or contrast venography, and pulmonary angiography increase the likelihood of correct diagnosis. Since pulmonary angiography is a relatively low-risk procedure, it should be performed in most patients suspected of having PE who have nondiagnostic lung scans and negative lower extremity venous studies.     

心肺疾病老年人并发肺栓塞的误诊分析(附23例临床分析)

目的:提高对患心、肺系统疾病老年人并发肺栓塞的认识,探讨及时确诊措施。方法:总结23例老年人肺栓塞的临床表现、实验室检查、影像检查等诊断资料。结果:78%患者表现突发性呼吸困难,以晕厥为首发症状者5例(21.7%),100%有低氧血症,10例行下肢静脉造影者中8例有下肢静脉血栓,14例核素肺扫描和18例肺动脉造影者均有PE诊断依据。误诊时间:<2周12例,6周至2年11例。最多是误诊为心绞痛或心肌梗塞者,共19例(82.6%)结论:晕厥、突发性呼吸困难、下肢静脉血栓为疑诊肺栓塞的主要征象,核素肺扫描、肺动脉造影为其诊断主要手段。     

肺灌注/通气显像在肺动脉栓塞诊断中的价值

目的:评价核素肺通气/灌注(V/Q)显像在肺动脉栓塞(PE)诊断中的价值。方法:回顾总结40例核素肺灌注/通气显像与肺动脉造影(CPA)诊断PE的对照研究。结果:31例患者V/Q显像示不相匹配的肺叶、肺段或多发亚肺段的放射性分布稀疏或缺损,提示为PE,其中肺动脉造影证实30例为PE,1例多发大动脉炎;9例患者的V/Q显像为相匹配的肺叶、肺段或多发亚肺段的稀疏或缺损,提示不是PE,与肺动脉造影结果一致。核素V/Q显像诊断PE的灵敏度为100%(30/30例),特异性为90.0%(9/10例),准确性为97.5%(39/40例)。结论:多数PE患者通过核素肺V/Q显像可以作出明确诊断,少数肺V/Q显像与临床表现不符的患者需行肺动脉造影。     

肺动脉栓塞的多层螺旋CT诊断与鉴别

目的研究肺动脉栓塞多层螺旋CT肺血管成像的影像表现,探讨与肺动脉栓塞表现相似疾病的鉴别,提高肺动脉栓塞诊断与鉴别诊断的水平。方法对21例肺动脉栓塞（1例为瘤栓）患者行多层螺旋CT肺动脉成像检查,图像采用10mm层厚,10mm层间距,和1．25层厚,0．625mm层间距进行重建,所获的数据传送至工作站运用MPR、MIP、VR技术后处理。结果20例中（不包括1例肺动脉肿瘤）,双侧肺动脉受累18例,单侧2例,病变累及131支肺动脉及分支。其中发生于左及右肺动脉远端18支,肺叶动脉38支、肺段动脉50支、肺段以下25支,CT显示的直接征象为肺动脉及分支血管内不同程度的充盈缺损,增强扫描不强化。充盈缺损依形态可分为4种：中心型（25支）、偏心型（61支）、附壁型（25支）、完全闭塞型（20支）。并存间接征象为主肺动脉及左右肺动脉增宽,局限性肺内灌注不均匀,肺梗死,胸腔积液及右房、右室增大。结论肺动脉栓塞在CT图像上形态多样,病变范围广泛,双侧发病多于单侧,主肺动脉受累少见。多层螺旋CT肺血管成像对本病的诊断有独特的优势,该方法能清晰显示肺动脉栓塞的直接征象和间接征象。为诊断及鉴别诊断提供可靠的影像学资料。     

Unresolved pulmonary embolism leading to a diagnosis of pulmonary artery sarcoma

Pulmonary artery sarcomas (PAS) are rare tumors with a poor prognosis. They are often misdiagnosed as pulmonary embolism (PE) leading to futile anticoagulation treatment and delay in proper diagnosis. We present a case of a patient who was initially misdiagnosed and anticoagulated for presumed pulmonary embolism. Progressive symptoms and additional imaging led to the diagnosis of intimal pulmonary artery sarcoma for which he underwent surgical resection. This case serves as a reminder to consider pulmonary artery sarcoma in the differential diagnosis of patients with dyspnea and filling defects on CT pulmonary angiogram offering the potential for resection prior to metastasis.     

Leukocytosis in acute pulmonary embolism.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this investigation is to assess the level of leukocytosis in acute pulmonary embolism (PE). BACKGROUND: Limited data exist regarding leukocytosis in acute PE. One reason that the prevalence of leukocytosis in acute PE is unknown, despite an extensive number of investigations of PE, may relate to the fact that acute PE is usually associated with other conditions that themselves may cause leukocytosis. METHODS: Hospital records of 386 patients with a diagnosis of acute PE were reviewed retrospectively. Patients with no other possible or definite cause of leukocytosis were analyzed separately. A diagnosis of PE was made by a high-probability interpretation of the ventilation/perfusion lung scan or pulmonary angiogram. RESULTS: Among patients with PE in whom other possible or defined causes for leukocytosis were eliminated, 52 of 266 (20%) had a WBC count > 10,000/mm3. None had a WBC count that was > or = 20,000/mm3. Patients with the pulmonary hemorrhage/infarction syndrome had an increased WBC count in 32 of 183 (17%) vs 20 of 83 (24%) in patients who did not have pulmonary hemorrhage/infarction syndrome (not significant). CONCLUSION: A modest leukocytosis may accompany (and possibly be caused by) PE. Its presence should not dissuade the clinician from objectively pursuing the diagnosis of PE.     

多层螺旋CT和MR肺动脉成像诊断急性肺动脉栓塞的对比研究

目的探究多层螺旋CT肺动脉造影和MR肺动脉成像对急性肺动脉栓塞(PE)疾病的的诊断价值。方法对2014年1月~2015年1月我院临床诊断为急性肺栓塞病接受住院治疗的120例患者进行分组,分组依据为随机数字表法,分为采用多层螺旋CT肺动脉造影诊断的CT组和采用MR肺动脉成像诊断的MR组,每组60例,对两组的诊断价值进行比较。结果两组患者经过检查对PE的显示率均为100%,且两组患者栓子栓塞部位比例相当,无统计学差异(P0.05),PE的间接征象有马赛克征、心包积液、肺动脉高压、胸腔积液、肺段梗死、局限性肺纹理稀疏,两组患者具体征象无统计学差异(P0.05)。结论对急性肺动脉栓塞的患者采用MR肺动脉成像进行诊断较为方便,准确率也高,是一种简便、快捷、无创、有效的诊断方法,值得在临床上推广应用。     

Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism

Conventional pulmonary arteriography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism (PE) bears several limitations in clinical practice, basically due to its invasiveness. On the other hand, no single noninvasive test is both sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of PE. Therefore, the choice of available noninvasive diagnostic tests guided by the clinical probability of PE is a good compromise at present. The first necessary step toward the diagnosis of PE is to raise the clinical suspicion, given that no diagnosis can be made if PE is not considered in the differential diagnosis of patients with acute cardiorespiratory symptoms. Second, empirical or standardized rules for predicting clinical probability may be combined with one or more noninvasive tests with the aim of increasing the accuracy of the noninvasive diagnosis. The strategy for the noninvasive diagnosis of PE varies among different centers according to the availability of each single technique that may be integrated with another and according to the characteristics of the population that refers to each single center. Therefore, spiral CT should not be used as a primary tool for the diagnosis of PE; its role needs to be re-evaluated in light of its sensitivity, feasibility, and radiation burden on the patients. In patients in whom the diagnosis of PE cannot be made at the end of the noninvasive pathway, the use of the invasive techniques must be taken into consideration. In our experience, however, such cases should not exceed 15 to 20% of the total patient population.     

肺结核并发肺栓塞的诊断与治疗

目的探讨肺结核并发肺栓塞(pulmonary embolism,PE)的诊断与治疗方法。方法分析2002年6月—2005年6月诊治的5例肺结核并发PE病例的临床资料。结果5例患者肺结核并发PE后,咳嗽、咳痰、发热加重,并出现胸闷、胸痛、心悸、呼吸困难,查体为呼吸急促、心动过速。经多普勒超声心动图、螺旋CT肺动脉造影检查明确PE诊断。5例确诊时间均已超过溶栓时间,其中1例转外科手术治疗后应用抗凝药物治疗,余4例均给予抗结核治疗同时抗凝治疗。其中1例未坚持服用抗凝药物,2年后再次复发PE抢救无效死亡,余4例病情好转。结论肺结核可并发PE,因临床症状类似,易延误诊断,错过溶栓时间,PE诊断以影像学检查为主,抗凝治疗是最佳治疗方法。     

Incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after a first episode of pulmonary embolism

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To assess the incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTPH) after the first episode of objectively confirmed pulmonary embolism (PE). DESIGN: Prospective cohort study in 12 Italian medical centers. PATIENTS: Consecutive patients treated with oral anticoagulants for the first episode of PE, either idiopathic or associated with temporary risk factors, were followed up for at least 3 years. Patients were excluded from the study if they had a known persistent risk factor for venous thromboembolism (VTE). INTERVENTIONS: At the follow-up visits, patients were evaluated for persistent dyspnea, either at rest or on exertion. All patients who were referred with dyspnea were assessed by transthoracic echocardiography, with evaluation of the systolic and mean pulmonary artery pressures. Patients with evidence of pulmonary hypertension on echocardiography underwent perfusion lung scans and pulmonary angiography to confirm the diagnosis of CTPH. RESULTS: Overall, 259 patients were included in the study. PE was idiopathic in 135 patients, while it was associated with at least a temporary risk factor for VTE in 124 patients. After an average follow-up period of 46 months, 37 patients were found to have persistent dyspnea that was unexplained in 5 patients. Among these patients, a diagnosis of CTPH was confirmed in two patients with idiopathic PE (0.8% of the overall study population [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.0 to 1.9]; 1.5% of patients with idiopathic PE [95% CI, 0.0 to 3.6]). The diagnosis was made 14 and 22 months, respectively, after the acute PE. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of CTPH observed in this study was about 1%. CTPH was observed in two patients with idiopathic PE.     

Imaging tests in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism

Imaging modalities play an essential role in diagnosing pulmonary embolism (PE). Clinical outcome studies demonstrated that PE can be safely ruled out in patients with unlikely clinical probability in combination with a normal D-dimer test result; in all other patients additional imaging is needed. The aim is to accurately confirm or rule out the diagnosis of PE, after which, if indicated, anticoagulant treatment can be initiated. Various diagnostic tests are available, and this article reviews the different imaging techniques in patients with suspected PE. Computed tomographic pulmonary angiography (CTPA) is the imaging test of choice because of its high sensitivity and specificity. Compression ultrasonography and ventilation perfusion scintigraphy are reserved for patients with concomitant suspicion of deep vein thrombosis or contraindication for CTPA. Furthermore the diagnostic process in patients with clinically suspected recurrent PE, PE during pregnancy, and PE in the elderly and in patients with malignancy are discussed.     

肺栓塞临床诊断与治疗

目的 :了解肺栓塞 (PE)的病因、症状、体征、诊断及治疗措施。方法 :回顾性分析 2 2例PE患者的年龄、性别、发病原因、临床表现及治疗方法等。结果 :2 2例中接受治疗 2 0例 (90 .9% ) ,其中 2例行导管介入碎栓及溶栓术 ,1例放置下腔静脉滤器 ,1例行肺动脉血栓切除术。治愈或改善 18例 (81.8% ) ,无效 2例 (9.1% ) ,2例未经治疗者死亡。结论 :PE主要由体循环静脉内血栓引起 ,源自下腔静脉系统最常见。PE常因症状无特异性 ,临床易出现误诊、误治。对易感患者应重视预防PE的发生 ,术后或因病卧床的患者早期活动、预防性抗凝治疗等均可有效地降低PE的发病率。对确诊者应立即给予抗凝、溶栓、肺动脉内膜剥脱术或肺动脉介入等相应的治疗。     

Use of computed tomography pulmonary angiography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolismin patients with an intermediate probability ventilation/perfusion scan

Abstract
Background:  Computed tomography pulmonary ­angiography (CTPA) plays an increasingly important role in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism (PE). Although accurate in the detection of large PE, its accuracy in other patient groups is yet to be defined.
Aim:  To compare CTPA with pulmonary angiog­raphy as a second-line investigation in patients with a ventilation/perfusion (VQ) scan indicating an intermediate probability of PE.
Methods:  We recruited 25 patients over a 17-month period. Subjects were eligible if they: (i) had clinically suspected PE, (ii) had a VQ scan indicating an intermediate probability of PE and (iii) were referred for pulmonary angiography. Subjects underwent CTPA within 36 h of the VQ scan . CTPA was interpreted without knowledge of the results of the pulmonary angiogram by two of the authors.
Results:  PE was prevalent (i.e. embolus detected at pulmonary angiography) in seven of 25 subjects (28%). The sensitivity of CTPA was 57% and the specificity was 94%.
Conclusions:  In the setting of intermediate-probability VQ scanning, CTPA may be used to clarify the diagnosis of PE. However, a negative CTPA cannot ­definitely exclude PE. Conventional pulmonary angiography may be necessary to determine the presence of PE if CTPA is negative. (Intern Med J 2003; 33: 74−78)     

老年肺栓塞的螺旋CT肺动脉造影诊断研究

目的探讨螺旋CT肺动脉造影在老年肺动脉栓塞(PE)诊断中的临床应用价值。方法采用螺旋CT对66例老年PE患者行肺动脉增强扫描,其中多层、单层螺旋CT(MSCT,SCT)肺动脉造影检查者各为21和45例。结果分析66例老年PE患者的2728支肺动脉,MSCT、SCT肺动脉造影共显示926支肺动脉受累。直接征象为中心型充盈缺损、部分型充盈缺损、完全性阻塞、附壁性充盈缺损,约占33.9%;1206支段以上肺动脉中,依据直接征象MSCT、SCT分别检出240支/384支(62.5%)和481支/822支(58.5%),共721支/1206支,两者检出率无明显差别(P=0.037);1522支亚段肺动脉中,MSCT、SCT分别检出121支/484支(25.0%)和84支/1038支(8.1%),共205支/1522支,前者检出率明显高于后者(P=0.632)。平扫示间接征象共125例次。结论MSCT、SCT对段以上PE的诊断二者均有较高的准确度,MSCT对亚段PE的诊断有其优势。     

Regional differences in rates of diagnosis and mortality of pulmonary thromboembolism

The rates of diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism (PE), and venous thromboembolism (PE and/or deep venous thrombosis) and the mortality rate of PE in hospitalized patients were evaluated in 4 regions of the United States. Data are from the National Hospital Discharge Survey and the United States Bureau of the Census. The western region of the United States showed a lower rate of diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis and venous thromboembolism and a lower mortality rate of PE than any other region.     

Spiral CT for pulmonary embolism: the paradigm has shifted

Computed tomography (CT) is rapidly becoming the first-line modality for imaging pulmonary embolism (PE). However, limitations for the accurate diagnosis of small peripheral emboli have prevented the unanimous embrace of CT as the new standard of reference for imaging PE, although the actual significance of isolated peripheral emboli is uncertain. At the same time, the high negative predictive value of CT pulmonary angiography for excluding clinically significant PE has been established. The introduction of multidetector-row spiral CT has greatly improved visualization of peripheral pulmonary arteries and detection of small emboli. Previous concerns regarding the use of spiral CT for the accurate diagnosis of peripheral pulmonary emboli should thus be overcome. Multidetector-row spiral CT has become a widely available and cost-effective technology and appears to have surpassed other imaging modalities for the accurate detection of central and peripheral PE. In this review, the authors assess the current role of spiral CT in the diagnostic algorithm of PE.     

肺栓塞患者85例临床诊治分析

目的探讨肺栓塞（pulmonary embolism,PE）的诊断、治疗及预后特点及2001年我国肺血栓栓塞症的诊断与治疗指南颁布后对其的影响。方法回顾性分析85例PE患者的临床资料、着重分析其临床特点、诊断、治疗及预后。结果71．8％（61／85）行螺旋CT检查确诊,16．5％（14／85）行放射性核素肺通气灌注扫描确诊．10．6％（9／85）行肺动脉造影检查确诊,1．2％（1／85）行尸体解剖检查确诊,共有34．1％（29／85）误诊为其他疾病。33例接受溶栓治疗前后行心脏超声检查,溶栓治疗后较治疗前比较,右心室直径、右心室／左心室舒张末期直径、收缩期肺动脉压显著性下降。根据患者入院的时间将其分为两组,1997年1月～2001年12月人院的患者设为A组,共35例;2002年1月～2008年7月入院的患者设为B组,共50例。B组住院病死率、误诊牢较A组明显降低,差异有统计学意义[22．0％比45．7％,χ^2=5．342,P=0．021：24．0％比48．6％,χ^2=5．530,P=0．019]。结论我国肺血栓栓塞症指南的颁布对减少PE的误诊率、住院病死率有一定帮助,溶栓治疗可以改善PE患者右心室功能不全。     

320层CT单容积肺动脉成像诊断老年肺动脉血栓栓塞的临床应用

目的探讨320层CT单容积肺动脉成像诊断肺动脉血栓栓塞(肺栓塞)的临床应用价值。方法应用320层CT单容积扫描模式对75例年龄60岁临床怀疑肺栓塞患者行肺动脉CT成像,采用容积再现技术、多平面重建及曲面重建等方法分析扫描数据。结果本组75例患者均成功完成扫描,图像质量均可满足诊断,41例诊断为肺栓塞,其中段级肺栓塞12例,余34例除外肺栓塞。全部病例最终诊断均经核素肺通气灌注扫描及临床溶栓治疗有效所证实。应用320层CT单容积肺动脉成像扫描时间1 s,平均射线剂量为(2.73±0.47)mSv,造影剂总量45 ml。结论 320层CT单容积肺动脉成像诊断肺栓塞是一种有效的无创检查手段,其具有低射线损伤、低对比剂用量、成像速度快等优势,尤其适用于临床急重症及老年患者。     

Computed tomography pulmonary angiography and venography: diagnostic and prognostic properties

Computed tomography pulmonary angiography (CTPA) is now an established test in the diagnosis of suspected pulmonary embolism (PE). Some may argue that it has become the "one-stop" center for diagnosis and prognosis of acute PE and deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Current literature shows CTPA to be reliable and accurate. Management studies have shown patient outcomes are excellent when CTPA is used in the diagnostic algorithm. The addition of computed tomography venography (CTV) increases the sensitivity, which may be worth the added radiation in certain patient populations. Although measures of right heart function, pulmonary artery pressures, and clot burden via CTPA need to be standardized and further validated prospectively, this test may also play a prominent role in determining short-term outcomes in patients with established acute PE.