Ecologic studies of Venezuelan encephalitis virus in Peru during 1970-1971.

Venezuelan encephalitis (VE) virus has intermittently produced epidemics and equine epizootics on the dry Pacific coastal plain of Peru since at least the 1930's. However, evidence that the virus exists in the Amazon region of Peru to the east of the Andes mountains was not obtained until antibodies were found in human sera collected in 1965, and 10 strains of the virus were isolated in a forest near the city of Iquitos, Peru during February and March 1971. Eight strains came from mosquitoes and two from dead sentinel hamsters. Three hamsters exposed in forests near Iquitos developed VE virus antibodies suggesting that hamster-benign strains also exist there. Antibody tests of equine sera revealed no evidence that VE virus was actively cycling during the late 1950's or 1960's in southern coastal Peru, where equine epizootics had occurred in the 1930's and 1940's. In northern coastal Peru bordering Ecuador, antibodies were present in equine sera, presumably residual from the 1969 outbreak caused by subtype I virus, since neutralizing antibody titers were higher to subtype I virus than to subtypes III or IV. No VE virus was detected in this northern region during the dry season of 1970 by use of sentinel hamsters. The possibility is considered that VE epidemics and equine epizootics on the Pacific coast of Peru are caused by movements of virus in infected vertebrates traversing Andean passes or in infected vertebrates or mosquitoes carried in airplanes from the Amazon region.     

Marker characteristics of Venezuelan encephalitis virus strains isolated before and after epidemics and equine epizootics in Middle America

Ninety-four strains of Venezuelan encephalitis (VE) virus isolated from sentinel hamsters exposed in the Middle American countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras were examined for the presence of virions with marker characteristics of strains that cause large epidemics and equine epizootics. Thirty-four strains came from before and 60 strains came from after the Middle American epidemics and equine epizootics of 1966 and 1969-1972. Twenty-three virion clones that resembled epizootic strains by hydroxylapatite chromatography and Vero monkey kidney cell plaque size determinations were characterized further. However, the predominant virions in these clones were like enzootic strains from Middle America north of the Panama Canal region, and not like Middle American epizootic VE strains, since they were in hemagglutination-inhibition antigenic subtype IE, usually had optimal pH of hemagglutination at 6.2, and were avirulent for English shorthair guinea pigs inoculated subcutaneously. These results provide evidence against the theory of origin of epidemic-equine epizootic VE virus strains that posits that epizootic virions emerge in Middle America from strains containing mixtures of enzootic and epizootic virions in enzootic habitats.     

Vector competence of Peruvian mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for a subtype IIIC virus in the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis complex isolated from mosquitoes captured in Peru

We evaluated mosquitoes collected in the Amazon Basin, near Iquitos, Peru, for their susceptibility to a subtype IIIC strain of the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis complex. This virus had been previously isolated from a pool of mixed Culex vomerifer and Cx. gnomatos captured near Iquitos, Peru, in 1997. After feeding on hamsters with viremias of about 10(8) plaque-forming units of virus per ml, Cx. gnomatos was the most efficient vector. Other species, such as Ochlerotatus fulvus and Psorophora cingulata, although highly susceptible to infection, were not efficient laboratory vectors of this virus due to a significant salivary gland barrier. The Cx. (Culex) species, consisting mostly of Cx. (Cux.) coronator, were nearly refractory to subtype IIIC virus and exhibited both midgut infection as well as salivary gland barriers. Additional studies on biting behavior, mosquito population densities, and vertebrate reservoir hosts of subtype IIIC virus are needed to determine the role that these species play in the maintenance and spread of this virus in the Amazon Basin region.     

Some characteristics of poliovirus strains isolated in Uganda between 1966 and 1971.

Sixty-five poliovirus strains were investigated in genetic marker tests in order to obtain information on the characteristics of polioviruses circulating in Uganda where, owing to the insufficient use of live poliovirus vaccine, poliomyelitis remained a serious public health problem. Of the type 1 strains predominant in both epidemic and non-epidemic years, 29 were studied for their antigenic fine structure. Based on their intratypic character, these strains proved to represent six different antigenic variants. Three of these variants were predominant during certain periods; the first variant was present in 1966 and 1968, the second in 1967, and the third from 1969 to the end of observation period. Four strains from Kuwait and three from Ghana isolated in 1969 and 1970 showed an antigenic structure identical to that of the strains predominant in Uganda in these years. Some strains proved to be of vaccine origin. Twenty-nine type 1 and 24 type 2 strains showed a great variety of characteristics when studied in d, od, and rct/40 marker tests. There was no indication that the distribution of strains according to their in vitro markers would have been different in epidemic and non-epidemic years, or that any particular combination of markers would have been more common among strains isolated from paralytic patients than among those from non-paralytic patients. Nine of 12 type 3 strains had the rct/40⁺ marker.     

Numerical analysis of the characteristics of Corynebacterium diphtheriae strains isolated in Victoria from 1962 to 1971.

A study of the incidence of diphtheria in the State of Victoria, Australia, was carried out. Numerical analysis of the characteristics of 264 strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae isolated between 1962 and 1971 placed them into 18 varieties plus six strains which were unique in their combination of reactions to the characteristics examined. During the 10-year period, some varieties appeared intermittently and were recognized by certain defining characteristics but exhibited a gradual change in their antigenic structure. In contrast, when the outbreaks were examined over shorter periods of time, a number of varieties and single strains were found which differed greatly from each other yet possessed the same major serotype antigen. These findings are discussed in terms of a ''one-parent'' concept in which the varieties and single strains represent phases of a common ancestor. By inspection and analysis of the characteristics of the strains, certain associations were apparent. For instance, a correlation was found between the antigenic structure of the organism and the colonial appearance on tellurite blood agar. Similarly, correlation was observed between bacteriophage type, diphthericin type and biochemical activity in that a strain which was highly active in one of the properties was also very active in the other two.     

Potential for Central American mosquitoes to transmit epizootic and enzootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus.

Experimental studies were undertaken to compare the vector competence of Culex (Melanoconion) taeniopus Dyar and Knab, Culex (Melanoconion) ocossa Dyar and Knab, and Psorophora confinnis (Lynch Arribalzalga) from Central America for epizootic (IAB) and enzootic (IE) strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus. Virus infection and dissemination rates were significantly higher in Cx. taeniopus orally exposed to IE as compared to those orally exposed to IAB virus. In contrast, both infection and dissemination rates were similar in Cx. ocossa exposed to either IAB or IE strains of VEE virus. Thus, susceptibility to epizootic and enzootic strains of VEE virus seems to be species specific within the subgenus Culex (Melanoconion). Both species transmitted each strain of VEE virus after intrathoracic inoculation, indicating that a midgut barrier affected vector competence in these species. Psorophora confinnis was equally susceptible to both IAB and IE viruses, but apparently had a salivary gland barrier, as only 1 of 16 mosquitoes with a disseminated infection transmitted VEE virus by bite.     

Equine amplification and virulence of subtype IE Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses isolated during the 1993 and 1996 Mexican epizootics

To assess the role of horses as amplification hosts during the 1993 and 1996 Mexican Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) epizootics, we subcutaneously infected 10 horses by using four different equine isolates. Most horses showed little or no disease and low or nonexistent viremia. Neurologic disease developed in only 1 horse, and brain histopathologic examination showed meningeal lymphocytic infiltration, perivascular cuffing, and focal encephalitis. Three animals showed mild meningoencephalitis without clinical disease. Viral RNA was detected in the brain of several animals 12-14 days after infection. These data suggest that the duration and scope of the recent Mexican epizootics were limited by lack of equine amplification characteristic of previous, more extensive VEE outbreaks. The Mexican epizootics may have resulted from the circulation of a more equine-neurotropic, subtype IE virus strain or from increased transmission to horses due to amplification by other vertebrate hosts or transmission by more competent mosquito vectors.     

湖北省新分离的二株乙型脑炎病毒全基因组序列特征分析

目的 对2008年湖北省新分离的2株乙型脑炎(简称乙脑)病毒进行全基因组序列测定和分析,了解当地乙脑病毒株的分子生物学特性.方法 病毒复苏鉴定后,使用覆盖乙脑病毒全基因组的16对特异性引物,RT-PCR法扩增乙脑病毒HBZG08-09株和HBZG08-55株的全基因组片段,直接测序拼接获得全基因组序列.使用ClustalX 1.83、MegAlign、Mega 4和Genedoc 3.2等生物学软件进行序列比对、核苷酸和氨基酸同源性分析、系统进化分析及氨基酸位点差异分析.结果 新分离的2株乙脑病毒基因组全长均为10 965个核苷酸,从97位到10 392位为开放阅读框,编码3432个氨基酸,2株间的全基因组核苷酸和氨摹酸间源性分别是98.2%和99.7%.进一步的基因型研究显示HBZG08-09株和HBZG08-55株均属于基因Ⅰ型乙脑病毒.2株病毒与我国近年来在河南及浙江的乙脑病毒分离株进化关系最近.与目前使用的减毒活疫苗株SA-14-14-2相比较,HBZG08-09株全基因组共存在82个氨基酸差异,HBZG08-55株存在84个氨基酸差异.但影响毒力或抗原的关键氨基酸位点未发生改变.结论 新分离的2株乙脑病毒均属于基因Ⅰ型,与疫苗株相比关键氨基酸位点未见变异.     

A study of a rural telemedicine system in the Amazon region of Peru

Voice and data communication facilities (email via VHF radio) were installed in 39 previously isolated health facilities in the province of Alto Amazonas in Peru. A baseline study was carried out in January 2001 and a follow-up evaluation in May 2002, after nine months of operation. We measured the reliability of the technology and the effect the system had on staff access to medical training and information. We also measured the indirect effects on the general population of access to better health-care. The experimental data were collected from 35 of the 39 sites in face-to-face questionnaire interviews. Before installation of the system, the mean consultation rate was 3 per month per facility (95% CI 1.5 to 4.5). At the end of the study, the mean consultation rate was 23 per month per facility (95% CI 14.7 to 31.5). There were 205 emergency transfers from the 39 health facilities. The system was employed in all these cases to alert the referral centre. The mean time required for evacuation was reduced from 8.6 h to 5.2 h. Health-care personnel reported that in 58 of the emergency cases (28%) the use of the system saved the life of the patient. The study shows that the use of communication technologies appropriate to local needs solves many problems in rural primary care, and that voice and email communication via VHF radio are feasible and useful for rural telemedicine.     

A new species of Leishmania parasite from the Venezuelan Andes region.

A new form of Leishmania is described from the Venezuelan Andes region. L. garnhami n.sp. is proposed for this parasite with amastigote stages showing a peculiar and unique organelle seen with light and electron microscope. It produces cutaneous lesions in people living at a height of between 800 and 1,8000 m. in urban and rural areas; the disease is associated with Lutzomyia townsendi, the main anthropophilic sandfly in the region. The parasite is easily inoculable into hamsters and grows slowly in vitro in blood-agar media with glucose, but more prolifically without glucose.     

Expression, processing, and immunogenicity of the structural proteins of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus from recombinant baculovirus vectors

Recombinant baculoviruses expressing the structural proteins of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE) have been constructed and the intracellular processing, antigenicity, and immunogenicity of the expression products have been assessed. Baculoviruses expressing the entire structural protein region (C-E3-E2-6K-E1), or the complete glycoprotein region (E3-E2-6K-E1), generated products in Sf9 cells that were accurately and completely processed, and resulted in mature proteins that were antigenically and electrophoretically indistinguishable from authentic viral proteins. These products were highly immunogenic in BALB/c mice, induced efficient VEE neutralizing responses, and protected these animals against challenge with virulent VEE. Expression of individual glycoprotein regions (E3-E2 and 6K-E1) generated products that were accurately but incompletely processed, and induced non-neutralizing antibodies that reacted more efficiently with denatured than native VEE proteins. Nonetheless, immunization with the 6K-E1 expression product provided complete protection against VEE challenge.     

Onset and duration of protective immunity to IA/IB and IE strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in vaccinated mice.

Three vaccines developed for protection against IA/IB subtypes of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus were evaluated in mice for the ability to protect against systemic and mucosal challenges with a virulent virus of the IE subtype. The vaccines were the formaldehyde-inactivated C-84 and live attenuated TC-83 vaccines currently administered to people under investigational new drug (IND) status, and a new live attenuated vaccine candidate, V3526. V3526 was superior for inducing protection to VEE IA/IB within a week of vaccination, and protection persisted for at least a year. All three vaccines induced long-term clinical protection against peripheral or mucosal challenge with IE virus, with the mucosal immunity induced by attenuated vaccines lasting longer than that induced by the inactivated vaccine. These data show that the molecularly cloned V3526 vaccine induces equivalent or improved immunity to homologous and heterologous VEE viruses than the existing vaccines.     

Comparison of individual and combination DNA vaccines for B. anthracis,Ebola virus,Marburg virus and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus

Multiagent DNA vaccines for highly pathogenic organisms offer an attractive approach for preventing naturally occurring or deliberately introduced diseases. Few animal studies have compared the feasibility of combining unrelated gene vaccines. Here, we demonstrate that DNA vaccines to four dissimilar pathogens that are known biowarfare agents, Bacillus anthracis, Ebola (EBOV), Marburg (MARV), and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), can elicit protective immunity in relevant animal models. In addition, a combination of all four vaccines is shown to be equally as effective as the individual vaccines for eliciting immune responses in a single animal species. These results demonstrate for the first time the potential of combined DNA vaccines for these agents and point to a possible method of rapid development of multiagent vaccines for disparate pathogens such as those that might be encountered in a biological attack.     

Globalization, inequality, and transmission of tropical diseases in the Venezuelan Amazon

Economic globalization appears to be causing greater inequalities and increased vulnerability to tropical diseases around the world. The Venezuelan Amazon population, especially the rural indigenous population, displays among the worst health indicators in the Americas. High infant mortality rates in remote indigenous populations indicate that such communities have been affected by the globalization of disease, rather than favored by globalization of health. Globalization has also influenced public policies in the country, affecting the efficiency of control programs targeting tropical diseases. A new global pact for the sustainable development of the planet is needed, supported by the globalization of human values and rights. In Venezuela, new policies for the indigenous health sector, more resources, and greater autonomy could help reduce the inequities described here in the Venezuelan Amazon.     

中国滇西北地区分离流行性乙型脑炎病毒的分子特征研

目的 对中国滇西北地区分离的流行性乙型脑炎(乙脑)病毒进行分子特征研究,了解与云南省内其他地区病毒株的差异.方法 用RT-PCR的方法扩增滇西北地区分离的13株乙脑病毒PrM、E片段和3'非编码区,对扩增产物进行序列测定.用Clustal 1.8X、DNASTAR、GENEDOC等生物学软件进行核苷酸序列和系统进化分析.结果 基于PrM和E基因核苷酸序列的系统进化显示,滇西北分离的13株乙脑病毒中有12株属于基因Ⅰ型,1株为基因Ⅲ型;12株基因Ⅰ型乙脑病毒与云南省其他地区分离的病毒株处于不同分支;和云南省其他地区分离株之间E基因核苷酸序列差异度为0.2%～13.9%;3'非编码区存在两种核苷酸缺失情况,基因Ⅰ型毒株在终止密码子后出现3处缺失,而基因Ⅲ型毒株只有1处缺失.结论 滇西北地区乙脑病毒分离株以基因Ⅰ型为主,E基因核苷酸序列与云南省其他地区分离株差异不明显;基因Ⅰ型毒株在3'非编码区存在3处缺失,而基因Ⅲ型毒株则只有1处缺失.     

云南省澜沧江流域蚊虫流行性乙型脑炎病毒分子特征分析

目的确定2007-2009年从云南省澜沧江流域采集蚊虫中分离的13株流行性乙型脑炎病毒(JEV)基因型及其E基因序列特征。方法用反转录-聚合酶链反应(RTPCR)扩增E蛋白核苷酸序列,测序后用DNAStar软件包中的MegAlign程序完成核苷酸相似性和氨基酸同源性分析;用ClustalX1.83软件进行碱基配对后采用Mega5.0软件做进化树分析。结果 13株JEVE基因的核苷酸相似性为98.0%～100%,氨基酸的同源性为99.8%～100%,与我国乙脑减毒活疫苗株SA14-14-2的核苷酸相似性为86.1%～86.9%,氨基酸同源性为96.8%～97.2%;进化树分析发现,13株JEV均属于基因Ⅰ型。结论 2007-2009年从云南省澜沧江流域采集蚊虫中分离的13株病毒属于JEV基因Ⅰ型。