The impact of pregnancy and menopause on CD4 lymphocyte counts in HIV-infected women

OBJECTIVES: To determine indirectly the effect of changes in levels of reproductive hormones on CD4 lymphocyte counts by investigating the impact of pregnancy and menopause on CD4 lymphocyte counts in HIV-infected women. METHODS: Participants were 382 women with a known interval of HIV seroconversion. Review of questionnaires or patient charts provided information on pregnancy and menopause. A linear regression model with a random intercept and slope, which adjusts for multiple CD4 lymphocyte counts per woman, was applied to estimate the CD4 decline following HIV seroconversion and to evaluate the effect of pregnancy and menopause on the CD4 path. RESULTS: The 382 women had a median age of 25 years at seroconversion and yielded 1428 CD4 lymphocyte counts from 3 to 10 years after seroconversion. At 3 years from seroconversion, 20 women had passed the menopause (i.e., the last menses) and five more subsequently passed this point during follow-up; 25 women had a pregnancy after study entry. Postmenopausal women had lower CD4 lymphocyte counts 3 years after seroconversion than premenopausal women (333 vs 399 x 106 cells/l; P = 0.09), and pregnant women had lower counts than non-pregnant women (375 vs 399 x 106 cells/l; P = 0.36). The monthly CD4 decline was not associated with pregnancy and menopause. Adjustment for age did not change the results. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that CD4 lymphocyte counts differ between pre- and postmenopausal women, perhaps because of changes in the level of reproductive hormones in the menopause, but associations were not statistically significant. Pregnancy had no statistically significant effect on CD4 lymphocyte counts.     

Decreased pregnancy rate after in-vitro fertilization in HIV-infected women receiving HAART

A study on in-vitro fertilization (IVF) was conducted among HIV-infected women. In these patients, a reduced pregnancy rate after IVF was observed if the patient's own oocytes were used. However, no significant reduction in the pregnancy rate was found if donated oocytes were used. The CD4 lymphocyte count was independently associated with ovarian resistance to hyperstimulation. Subclinical hypogonadism mediated by immunosuppression may explain these observations, suggesting the need to optimize the immunological status of the patient before considering assisted reproduction treatments.     

Lipodystrophy is an independent predictor of hypertriglyceridemia during pregnancy in HIV-infected women

Lipid values were measured during pregnancy in HIV-infected, treatment-experienced women. A previous history of lipodystrophy was associated with significantly higher triglyceride values at all pregnancy trimesters. In multivariate analyses lipodystrophy independently increased the risk of hypertriglyceridemia by threefold at the first trimester, and by eightfold at the second and third trimesters. Protease inhibitor treatment was also independently associated with hypertriglyceridemia.     

The cost-effectiveness of elective Cesarean delivery for HIV-infected women with detectable HIV RNA during pregnancy

OBJECTIVES: To determine the net health consequences, costs, and cost-effectiveness of alternative delivery strategies for HIV-infected pregnant women with detectable HIV RNA in the USA. DESIGN: Cost-effectiveness analysis using a probabilistic decision model. METHODS: The model compared two strategies: elective Cesarean section and vaginal delivery. Data for HIV transmission rate, maternal death rate, health-related quality of life and costs were obtained from the literature, national databases, and a tertiary hospital's cost accounting system. Model outcomes included total lifetime costs, quality-adjusted life expectancy, maternal death rate, HIV transmission rate, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. RESULTS: Elective Cesarean section resulted in a vertical HIV transmission rate of 34.9 per 1000 births compared with 62.3 per 1000 births for vaginal delivery. Elective Cesarean section was more effective (38.7 quality adjusted life years per mother and child pair) and less costly ($10600 per delivery) than trial of labor (38.2 combined quality adjusted life years at a cost of $14500 per delivery). However, elective Cesarean section increased maternal mortality by 2.4 deaths per 100000 deliveries. The results were consistent over a wide range of the variables, but were sensitive to the risk of HIV transmission with vaginal delivery and the relative risk of HIV transmission with elective Cesarean section. CONCLUSIONS: In pregnant HIV-infected women with detectable HIV RNA, elective Cesarean section would reduce total costs and increase overall quality-adjusted life expectancy for the mother-child pair, albeit at a slight loss of quality adjusted life expectancy to the mother.     

The effect of pregnancy on survival in women with cystic fibrosis

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) are currently living to their fourth decade and are making reproductive decisions. Information concerning the reproductive health of women with CF has been limited to small or single-center studies. DESIGN: We conducted a matched parallel-cohort study to assess the impact of pregnancy on the survival of women with CF. PARTICIPANTS: A parallel-cohort study included all women > 12 years of age who were enrolled in the US Cystic Fibrosis Foundation National Patient Registry from 1985 to 1997. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Six hundred eighty of the 8,136 women in the cohort became pregnant. These 680 women were matched on an index year to 3,327 control women with CF. At the inception of entry into the cohort, women who reported pregnancy were more likely to have had a higher percentage of predicted FEV(1) (67.5% predicted vs 61.7% predicted, respectively; p < 0.001) and a higher weight (52.9 vs 46.4 kg, respectively; p < 0.001). Using Kaplan-Meier survival curves, the 10-year survival rate in pregnant women (77%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 71 to 82%) was higher than in those women who did not become pregnant (58%; 95% CI, 55 to 62%). A separate analysis, matching pregnant patients on FEV(1) percent predicted, age, Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization, and pancreatic function, obtained similar results. Using Cox proportional hazard modeling to adjust for baseline age, FEV(1) percent predicted, weight, height, and pulmonary exacerbation rate per year, pregnancy was not associated with an increase risk of death. Pregnancy was not harmful in any subgroup including patients with FEV(1) < 40% of predicted or diabetes mellitus. CONCLUSIONS: Women with CF who became pregnant were initially healthier and had better 10-year survival rates than women with CF who did not become pregnant. After adjustment for the initial severity of illness, women who became pregnant did not have a significantly shortened survival.     

Depression in perinatally HIV-infected pregnant women compared to non-perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected pregnant women

“Depression (as noted in chart by a physician)” was compared between HIV infected pregnant women and controls. Perinatally HIV-infected (PHIV), non-perinatally HIV-infected (NPHIV), and HIV-uninfected (HIV-U) pregnant women were all compared using a logistic regression model. Overall, HIV-infected women had higher rates of depression than HIV-U, with PHIV women demonstrating a clinically and statistically significant increased risk compared to HIV-U women [adjusted OR: 15.9, 95% CI?=?1.8–143.8]. Future studies in larger populations are warranted to confirm these findings and further elucidate mental health outcomes of PHIV and NPHIV pregnant women.     

Influence of body mass index on pregnancy outcomes among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected Zambian women

OBJECTIVES: To determine the influence of body mass index (BMI) on pregnancy outcomes of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected Zambian women and to assess the possible role of BMI on mother-to-child transmission rate of HIV. METHODS: We analysed data from a clinical trial on nevirapine administration for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Lusaka, Zambia. Demographic characteristics, medical information and pregnancy outcomes were used in this secondary analysis. RESULTS: A total of 1211 women were included in this analysis and 36% were HIV-infected. Among HIV-infected women, maternal parity and prior stillbirths increased with increasing BMI in univariate analysis. Mean birth weight rose as well at 28.3 g [95% confidence interval (CI)=14.0-42.6] of infant weight per BMI unit. Transmission of HIV from mother to child appeared inversely related to BMI when compared according to BMI quartile (P for trend=0.07). In the HIV-uninfected group, infant birth weight increased with increasing BMI, at 32.7 g (95% CI=23.5-41.9) of infant weight per BMI unit. CONCLUSION: Birth weight increased alongside BMI in both HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women. There is a suggestion that women with lower BMI have a greater risk of perinatal HIV transmission, even after adjustments for HIV viral load and CD4 count.     

抗反转录病毒治疗时机选择对妊娠合并HIV感染者妊娠结局影响的研究

目的研究抗反转录病毒治疗时机选择,明确其对妊娠合并HIV感染者妊娠结局的影响。方法选取2015年1月—2018年1月我院收治的103例妊娠合并HIV感染者作为研究对象,根据抗反转录病毒治疗时机不同分为2组,其中在孕28周以内行抗反转录病毒治疗的患者作为研究组(n=74例);在孕28周及以后行抗反转录病毒治疗,且至分娩间隔时间不少于1个月的患者作为对照组(n=29例)。观察2组患者抗病毒治疗效果、妊娠结局及18月龄儿HIV感染随访情况。结果行抗反转录病毒治疗后,分娩前1 d研究组患者病毒载量下降幅度大于对照组(P<0.05);研究组患者早产比例为2.70%,显著低于对照组(P<0.05)。结论妊娠合并HIV感染者尽早实施抗反转录病毒治疗对于降低母体病毒载量和胎儿早产率具有重要意义。     

Treatment of HIV-infected pregnant women

Several questions arise concerning the election and use of the various antiretroviral medicines in pregnant women, questions arising from the specific medical problems of many women at this stage of their lives. The authors use published data and their own experience to pose the following questions and draw conclusions: 1. During pregnancy women undergo a series of physiological changes that could affect the pharmacokinetics of the various antiretroviral medicines. Are adjustments to drug doses needed? 2. What are the real risks of antiretroviral drugs for the foetus or neonate? 3. Can pregnancy make women more sensitive to pharmacological toxicity? 4. Are there any other reasons, apart from the above, for changing a previously efficacious antiretroviral treatment because a woman becomes pregnant?     

Traumatic stress in HIV-infected women.

This study assesses the prevalence of specific traumatic stressors that meet criterion A for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' (DSM-IV) diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and symptoms of PTSD in a representative sample of HIV-infected women. The study also assesses the impact of these stressors and symptoms on the clinical progression of HIV infection. The Life Stressor Checklist and the Impact of Events Scale-Revised were administered via interview to 67 Africa-American women beyond the initial stages of HIV infection. The ratio of CD4 t-cells to CD8 t-cells were abstracted from medical records at dates that approximated psychological interviews and were examined at two points in time 12 to 14 months apart. The prevalence of traumatic stressors and PTSD symptoms were high among HIV-infected women. Traumatic stressors were significantly associated with a lower CD4 to CD8 ratio at the 1-year follow-up. Among women who reported a traumatic event, those who also met criteria for PTSD evidenced a lower CD4 to CD8 ratio at the follow-up assessment. The study concludes that prevention and treatment efforts targeted at HIV-infected women must take into account traumatic stressors and PTSD symptoms and their potential impact on the course of the disease.     

Increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in HIV-infected women treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy in Europe

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) may be associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Among 4372 live births in the European Collaborative Study, the prematurity rate increased to 24.9% in 2000-2004. Antenatal HAART use initiated pre-pregnancy was strongly associated with prematurity (AOR 2.05, 95% CI 1.43, 2.95), particularly severe prematurity. The implication of increased prematurity is evidenced in high neonatal mortality in these groups (0.66% for infants at 34-36 weeks and 7.37% at < 34 weeks' gestation).     

Evaluation and management of HIV-infected women

The rate of newly diagnosed AIDS in the United States is increasing fastest in women, who are infected with HIV primarily through heterosexual transmission. Approximately 60% of these women are African American, and 18% are Latina. A gynecologic infection is the most common symptom that leads to initial medical evaluation. Specific studies at baseline should include CD4 lymphocyte count, HIV-1 RNA level, and gynecologic examination with Papanicolaou smear. Decisions about initiation of antiretroviral therapy depend on the patient's clinical diagnoses, her willingness to adhere to treatment, and CD4 lymphocyte and HIV-1 RNA levels. Levels of HIV-1 RNA may be somewhat lower in women than in men at the same CD4 count, whereas women have higher CD4 lymphocyte counts at the time of AIDS diagnosis. However, prospective trials have not yet indicated the need to change the threshold CD4 lymphocyte counts or HIV-RNA levels for initiation of therapy in women. The efficacy of antiretroviral therapy appears to be similar in men and women, although women are more likely to experience toxicities. Abnormal Papanicolaou smears occur in approximately 40% of women at baseline, and 58% are infected with human papillomavirus. The prevalence of both conditions increases with lower CD4 lymphocyte counts and higher HIV-1 RNA levels. Precursor lesions to cervical cancer may be effectively treated, but almost 50% recur within 1 year, mandating careful follow-up. Referral should be sought for specialized gynecologic care and for issues related to HIV itself, since survival is prolonged in patients treated by physicians who are experienced in treating HIV. When they are provided the same access to care, HIV-infected women have similar prognoses as HIV-infected men.     

The effect of pregnancy on the body mass index 9 months postpartum in 49 women

The effect of pregnancy on the body mass index (weight/height2) was studied. The change in the body mass index from pregestation through 9 months postpartum of 49 pregnant women was compared with the change in the body mass index during the same period of follow-up in 400 non-pregnant women. All women participated in a follow-up study in which body weight was measured every 6 months. In addition the body weight of the pregnant women was measured at 6 and 12 months postpartum. Nine months postpartum the total group of pregnant women had gained as much body mass as was to be expected from ageing. The same was true for the subgroup of women who did not breast-feed their child or who breast-fed for a period shorter than 2 months. Unexpectedly, women who breast-fed their child for more than 2 months gained +0.6 kg/m2 (90 per cent CI: +0.1, +1.0) more body mass than the non-pregnant women. Compared to the latter group, women who used bromocriptine to stop lactation lost body mass (-0.5 kg/m2, 90 per cent CI: -1.1, +0.0). These observations suggest that, postpartum, the total group of pregnant women has not gained more body mass than expected from ageing. 'Maternal obesity' may be associated with breast-feeding for long periods.     

Preconception health care for HIV-infected women

The advent of potent antiretroviral therapy coupled with the dramatic reduction in mother-to-child transmission seen over the past decade has allowed women with HIV infection to live longer, healthier lives and has affected their fertility desires. As a result, preconception health care for HIV-infected women should be a routine part of primary health care. Such counseling includes health recommendations and counseling for safer sexual practices, contraception, and pregnancy planning, identifies individual risks and corresponding interventions, provides personalized and nonjudgmental education, and provides access to integrated services that address all of a woman's health and psychological needs. The goals are: (1) to improve the health of the woman before conception; (2) to identify risk factors for adverse maternal or fetal outcomes and initiate interventions to optimize outcomes; and (3) to prevent transmission of HIV to infants as well as sexual partners. This article will review the components of preconception health care for HIV-infected women.