Primary repair with suture augmentation for proximal anterior cruciate ligament tears: A systematic review with meta-analysis

PurposeTo assess the outcomes of arthroscopic primary repair of proximal anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears with suture augmentation in the literature.MethodsA systematic search was performed using PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane for studies reporting on outcomes of primary repair of proximal ACL tears with suture augmentation between 2015 and 2021. Primary outcomes included failure and reoperation rates, whereas secondary outcomes consisted of functional outcomes. Proportion meta-analysis was performed to assess the overall incidence of failure rates. Outcomes of adults and adolescent were reported separately.ResultsThirteen studies with 418 patients were included in this study (mean age 32 years, mean follow-up 2.0 years, 49% male). There were no randomized studies and overall grade of recommendation was weak. Overall failure rate for primary repair with suture augmentation was 8% (95% CI 3.9–14.4), but this was higher for younger patients (17%; 95% CI 2.5–63.9) than for older patients (6%; 95% CI 3.8–8.9). The risk for additional reoperations, complications, or hardware removal was low (all <2%), while functional outcomes were good to excellent (all >80% of maximum score).ConclusionCurrent literature shows that primary repair with suture augmentation is a reliable treatment option for proximal ACL tears with a failure rate of 8% and good functional outcome scores at short-term follow-up. Although functional outcomes were good irrespective of age, failure rates were higher in young patients (17% vs 6%, respectively). There is a need for high-quality comparative studies with large group of patients to compare these outcomes with ACL reconstruction.     

Gap formation following primary repair of the anterior cruciate ligament: A biomechanical evaluation

Background

Historically, inconsistent and unpredictable results of open primary anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) repair were reported. Recently, however, good results of arthroscopic primary ACL repair of proximal tears have been reported. Purpose of this study was to assess the direct postoperative gap formation and maximum failure load following simulated knee motion after primary ACL repair.

Range of motion and complications following primary repair versus reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament

Introduction

Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in primary anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) repair. The procedure is less invasive than ACL reconstruction, yet studies assessing early postoperative course are lacking. Goal therefore was to assess postoperative range of motion (ROM), complications and operative times following primary repair and compare this to the gold standard of reconstruction.

Age,activity level and meniscus injury,but not tear location,tibial slope or anterolateral ligament injury predict coping with anterior cruciate ligament injury

IntroductionEarly recognition of potential predictors on the success of conservative treatment of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is important, as appropriate treatment can be applied to each individual patient. The goal of this study is to assess the patient demographic and radiological parameters that predict coping with ACL injuries.MethodsAll patients presenting with a complete ACL injury between 2014 and 2018 at our clinic were included. The role of patient demographics (age, gender, activity level, meniscus injury and time from injury to clinic), and ACL tear location, bone bruises, tibial slope, and anterolateral ligament (ALL) injury were assessed on the success of conservative treatment using univariate and multivariate analyses.ResultsSixty-five patients (32%) were copers and 141 (68%) were non-copers. Univariate analysis showed that copers were significantly older (40 vs. 27 years, P < 0.001), had lower preinjury activity level (Tegner 5.7 vs. 6.5, P < 0.001) and less often lateral meniscus tears (16% vs. 5%, P = 0.019) but not medial meniscus tears (17% vs. 14%, P = 0.609) than non-copers. Multivariate analysis revealed that increasing age (P < 0.001), Tegner level ≤ 6 (P = 0.003) and no meniscus injury (P = 0.045) were independent predictors of coping with ACL deficiency.ConclusionsOlder age, participation in lower activity sports levels and absence of meniscus injury were predictive of coping with ACL deficiency, whereas there was no such role for tear location, tibial slope, lateral bone bruise presence, ALL injury or gender. These findings might help to identify potential copers and guide surgeons early in the optimal treatment for patients with ACL injury.     

Acute and delayed anterior cruciate ligament repair results in similar short to mid-term outcomes

BackgroundTo assess whether primary repair of proximal ACL tears in the delayed setting leads to similar clinical and functional outcomes as compared to ACL repair in the acute setting.MethodsAll patients with proximal tears with good tissue quality treated in the acute (≤3 weeks post-injury) and delayed setting (>3 months post-injury) were retrospectively reviewed at minimum 2-year follow-up. Ipsilateral reinjury or reoperation and contralateral injury rates were recorded. Functional outcomes were evaluated using the Lysholm, modified Cincinnati, Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation, International Knee Documentation Committee subjective, Forgotten Joint Score-12, Anterior Cruciate Ligament–Return to Sport after Injury scale, and satisfaction scores. Finally, time to return to work, time to discontinue brace-usage, time to running, and time to return to sports were reviewed. Group differences were compared using chi-square tests and Mann-Whitney U tests.ResultsSixty-nine patients were included, of which 34 (49%) were treated acutely and 35 (51%) in the delayed setting. Besides time from injury to surgery, patient demographics were similar between groups (all p > 0.1). There were three reinjuries (9%) in the acute group and four in the delayed (11%; p > 0.999). Reoperation, complication, and contralateral injury rates were similar between groups (all p > 0.1), while functional outcomes were also comparable (all p > 0.05).ConclusionThis study found that acute and delayed primary ACL repair results in similar clinical and functional outcomes at short to mid-term follow-up. Therefore, the most important factors for repair surgery success seem to be tissue quality and tissue length, rather than acuity of the surgery.Level of evidenceLevel III, retrospective comparative cohort study.     

Functional outcomes and return to sport following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in recreational athletes: A systematic review

IntroductionOutcomes of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) are well reported in athletic populations, however surprisingly little information is available for the recreational athletes that make up the majority of cases. The aim was therefore to assess post-operative outcome and return-to-sport in recreational athletes following ACLR.MethodsA systematic search was conducted in Ovid MEDLINE, CINAHL, AMED and the grey literature according to PRISMA guidelines. Studies involving a clear definition of recreational athletes who underwent ACLR and recorded postoperative outcomes were included. Publication quality was assessed using Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.Results107 studies were identified, 19 full-text records reviewed and 13 included, reflecting 1342 patients with an average age of 31.7 (SD 9.8) years. Mean follow-up was 43.6 (SD 42.8) months. Activity change post-surgery was reported in 92% (12/13) papers. Outcomes were assessed with the Tegner score in seven studies, four of which reported pre-injury scores, which worsened from 5.4 to 4.3 at final follow-up (76.5 months). 54% (7/13) studies reported return to pre-injury level of sport. In these, 59% (n = 327/555) achieved pre-injury level at a mean follow-up of 33.7 months (SD 38.6). The return-to-sports rate increased with length of follow-up. Methodological quality was moderate.ConclusionSubstantial variation in the timeframes and outcomes assessed restricts pooled analysis of change in function. Based on seven studies, 59% of recreational athletes return to pre-injury level of sport following ACLR. The link between return rate and post-operative review timeframe suggests that longer follow-up may be required to capture return-to-sport rates in this population.     

Effect of meniscus repair on pivot-shift during anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: Objective evaluation using triaxial accelerometer

Background

Some types of meniscus tear, especially lateral meniscus tear, have been reported to be associated with rotatory knee laxity. However, precise information regarding the effect of meniscus repair on rotatory laxity is limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of lateral and medial meniscus repair on rotatory laxity in anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injured knees.

Arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament repair for proximal anterior cruciate ligament tears in skeletally immature patients: Surgical technique and preliminary results

Background

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears in children are increasingly common and present difficult treatment decisions due to the risk of growth disturbance. Although open primary ACL repair was abandoned in the historical literature, recent studies have suggested that there is a role for arthroscopic primary repair in patients with proximal tears.

LARS人工韧带同时重建前、后交叉韧带

目的探讨关节镜下LARS（Ligament Advanced Reinforcement System，LARS）人工韧带同时重建前（An-terior cruciate ligament，ACL）、后交叉韧带（posterior cruciate ligament，PCL）的方法和临床疗效。方法从2006年1月至2007年4月，用LARS人工韧带同时重建ACL、PCL2例。应用Lysholm功能评分表评估膝关节功能，采用抽屉实验检查膝关节前后松弛度。结果2例均获得随访，随访时间分别为8月、3月。2例患者术后患膝关节不稳定症状消失，胫骨后坠征阴性，前、后抽屉试验阴性。膝关节功能评估采用Lysholm功能评分标准，术前平均分别为45．6±7．6分，术后平均为80．3±9．1分。结论关节镜下应用LARS人工韧带同时重建ACL、PCL可更好地恢复膝芙节的稳定性，且创伤小，并发症少，近期疗效满意，但远期效果仍需进一步观察。     

Reinterventions after dynamic intraligamentary stabilization in primary anterior cruciate ligament repair

Background

The goal of this study was to perform an in-depth analysis of the frequency and cause of secondary interventions subsequent to primary anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) repair with dynamic intraligamentary stabilization (DIS).

Influence of selected plane on the evaluation of tibial tunnel locations using a three-dimensional bone model in double-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

BackgroundThe purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a selected plane on the evaluation of tibial tunnel locations following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) between two planes: the plane parallel to the tibial plateau (Plane A) and the plane perpendicular to the proximal tibial shaft axis (Plane B).MethodsThirty-four patients who underwent double-bundle ACLR were included. Three-dimensional model of tibia was created using computed tomography images 2 weeks postoperatively, and tibial tunnels of the anteromedial bundle (AMB) and posterolateral bundle (PLB) were extracted. To evaluate tibial tunnel locations, two planes (Planes A and B) were created. The locations of the tibial tunnel apertures of each bundle were evaluated using a grid method and compared between Planes A and B. The difference in coronal alignment between Planes A and B were also assessed.ResultsThe AMB and PLB tunnel apertures in Plane A were significantly more laterally located than in Plane B (mean difference; AMB, 1.5%; PLB, 1.7%, P < 0.01). There were no significant differences in the anteroposterior direction between the planes. Coronal alignment difference between the planes was 16.8 ± 2.2°; Plane B was more valgus than Plane A.ConclusionAlthough tibial tunnel locations were not significantly influenced by the selected planes in the AP direction, subtle but statistically significant differences were found in the ML direction between the Planes A and B in double-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. The findings suggest that both Planes A and B can be used in the assessment of tibial tunnel locations after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.     

Rupture,reconstruction, and rehabilitation: A multi-disciplinary review of mechanisms for central nervous system adaptations following anterior cruciate ligament injury

BackgroundDespite surgical reconstruction and extensive rehabilitation, persistent quadriceps inhibition, gait asymmetry, and functional impairment remain prevalent in patients after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. A combination of reports have suggested underlying central nervous system adaptations in those after injury govern long-term neuromuscular impairments. The classic assumption has been to attribute neurophysiologic deficits to components of injury, but other factors across the continuum of care (e.g. surgery, perioperative analgesia, and rehabilitative strategies) have been largely overlooked.ObjectiveThis review provides a multidisciplinary perspective to 1) provide a narrative review of studies reporting neuroplasticity following ACL injury in order to inform clinicians of the current state of literature and 2) provide a mechanistic framework of neurophysiologic deficits with potential clinical implications across all phases of injury and recovery (injury, surgery, and rehabilitation)ResultsStudies using a variety of neurophysiologic modalities have demonstrated peripheral and central nervous system adaptations in those with prior ACL injury. Longitudinal investigations suggest neurophysiologic changes at spinal-reflexive and corticospinal pathways follow a unique timecourse across injury, surgery, and rehabilitation.ConclusionClinicians should consider the unique injury, surgery, anesthesia, and rehabilitation on central nervous system adaptations. Therapeutic strategies across the continuum of care may be beneficial to mitigate maladaptive neuroplasticity in those after ACL injury.     

Screw oversizing for anterior cruciate ligament graft fixation in primary and enlarged tibial tunnels: A biomechanical study in a porcine model

Background

Ideal diameter for tibial interference screw fixation of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) graft remains controversial. Tibial graft fixation with screws matching the tunnel diameter vs. one-millimetre oversized screws were compared.

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) repair using cortical or anchor fixation with suture tape augmentation vs ACL reconstruction: A comparative biomechanical analysis

BackgroundThe purpose was to compare knee kinematics in a cadaveric model of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) repair using an adjustable-loop femoral cortical suspensory (AL-CSF) or independent bundle suture anchor fixation (IB-SAF) with suture tape augmentation to a bone-patellar tendon-bone (BPTB) ACL reconstruction.MethodsTwenty-seven cadaveric knees were randomly assigned to one of three surgical techniques: (1) ACL repair using the AL-CSF technique with suture tape augmentation, (2) ACL repair using the IB-SAF technique with suture tape augmentation, (3) ACL reconstruction using a BPTB autograft. Each specimen underwent three conditions according to the state of the ACL (native, proximal transection, repair/reconstruction) with each condition tested at four different angles of knee flexion (0°, 30°, 60°, 90°). Anterior tibial translation (ATT) and internal tibial rotation (ITR) were evaluated using 3-dimensional motion tracking software.ResultsACL transection resulted in a significant increase in ATT and ITR when compared to the native state (P < 0.001, respectively). ACL repair with the AL-CSF or IB-SAF technique as well as BPTB reconstruction restored native ATT and ITR at all tested angles of knee flexion, while showing significantly less ATT at 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90° as well as significantly less ITR at 30°, 60°, and 90° of knee flexion when compared to the ACL-deficient state. There were no significant differences in ATT and ITR between the three techniques utilized.ConclusionACL repair using the AL-CSF or IB-SAF technique with suture tape augmentation as well as BPTB ACL reconstruction each restored native anteroposterior and rotational laxity, without significant differences in knee kinematics between the three techniques utilized.Level of EvidenceControlled Laboratory Study.     

Anterior cruciate ligament repair with internal brace augmentation: A systematic review

BackgroundPrimary repair of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) ruptures has re-emerged as a treatment option for proximal tears, with internal brace augmentation often utilised. The aim of this study is to provide an overview of the current evidence presenting outcomes of ACL repair with internal bracing to assess the safety and efficacy of this technique.MethodsAll studies reporting outcomes of arthroscopic primary repair of proximal ACL tears, augmented with internal bracing from 2014-2021 were included. Primary outcome was failure rate and secondary outcomes were subjective patient reported outcome measures (PROMs) and objective assessment of anteroposterior knee laxity.ResultsNine studies were included, consisting of 347 patients, mean age 32.5 years, mean minimum follow up 2 years. There were 36 failures (10.4%, CI 7.4% - 14.1%). PROMs reporting was variable across studies. KOOS, Lysholm and IKDC scores were most frequently used with mean scores > 87%. The mean Tegner and Marx scores at follow-up were 6.1 and 7.8 respectively. The mean side to side difference measured for anteroposterior knee laxity was 1.2mm.ConclusionsThis systematic review with meta-analysis shows that ACL repair with internal bracing is a safe technique for treatment of proximal ruptures, with a failure rate of 10.4%. Subjective scores and clinical laxity testing also revealed satisfactory results. This suggests that ACL repair with internal bracing should be considered as an alternative to ACL reconstruction for acute proximal tears, with the potential benefits of retained native tissue and proprioception, as well as negating the need for graft harvest.     

The influence of tibial slope on the graft in combined high tibial osteotomy and anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Background

Young patients with severe medial osteoarthritis, varus malalignment and insufficiency of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) are difficult to treat. The tibial slope has gained attention with regard to osteotomies and ligamentous instability. The purpose was to evaluate the outcome of combined high tibial osteotomy (HTO), ACL reconstruction and chondral resurfacing (CR, abrasion plus microfracture), and to analyse graft failure rates with regard to the tibial slope.

基于MRI快速建立前交叉韧带三维数字化模型初步报道

目的　研究利用MRI二维图像快速建立前交叉韧带(ACL)三维数字化模型的方法,并评估模型的真实可靠程度。 方法　 选择 20 例临床诊断为ACL断裂患者的术前健侧MRI图像资料,导入自主开发的ACL快速分割技术软件（3D MIA ）进行图像分割,再以面绘制方式进行三维重建,建立膝关节及ACL三维数字化模型,测量模型的ACL长度、宽度、厚度及与人体三个解剖平面的角度,所得数据与前期解剖研究结果进行统计学的分析对比,评估模型的可靠程度。 结果 造模包括膝关节各骨性结构及前后交叉韧带,平均造模时间18 min,测量得到ACL长(39.80±1.86)mm、宽(5.80±1.83)mm、厚(9.96±1.26)mm;ACL与冠状面夹角(27.58±3.64)°、与矢状面夹角(39.82±4.01)°、与水平面夹角(22.27±4.23)°。与前期研究获得的相应数据对比,经独立样本t 检验,差异均无显著性意义(P>0.05)。 结论 利用自主开发的ACL分割技术及三维重建软件可以快速且较准确地建立健侧 ACL三维数字化模型,为计算机辅助ACL手术系统及实现ACL临床仿真个体化解剖重建提供了参考基础。     

Functional ultrasonography in the diagnosis of acute anterior cruciate ligament injuries: A field study

Functional ultrasonography is a rapid and inexpensive method of diagnosing anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries. In previous studies, we assessed the diagnostic accuracy of this innovative method by experienced sonographers. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether an examiner without specialist expertise in arthrosonography can achieve similar positive results and whether this technique is effective as a screening tool that can help reduce the number of undetected ACL injuries.After a short period of training, a single examiner prospectively measured anterior tibial translation by ultrasonography in the injured and healthy knees of 41 patients with acute knee trauma. An ACL rupture was presumed to be present if the side-to-side difference in tibial translation exceeded 1 mm (ΔD > 1 mm). All patients who were enrolled in the study underwent arthroscopy or at least magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).Ultrasonography revealed the presence of an ACL lesion in 32 of 33 patients with arthroscopically confirmed ACL rupture (sensitivity: 97%, specificity: 87.5%). The mean side-to-side differences (ΔD) between injured (3.8 mm ± 1.5 mm) and uninjured ACLs (0.1 mm ± 0.7 mm) were statistically significant (p < 0.05).Our study shows that an examiner without specialist knowledge in ultrasonography can accurately diagnose acute ACL injuries using functional ultrasonography. No additional mechanical tests (KT-1000/KT-2000) or MRI examinations are required. Functional ultrasonography is easy to learn and ensures a high level of diagnostic accuracy. It is well suited for applications in private practices and smaller hospitals with basic medical/surgical care.     

Biomechanical study of a computer simulated reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)

The purpose of the study was to use a computer simulation of various surgical techniques for reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) to study graft biomechanics. To ensure the normal function of the cruciate ligament and, consequently, normal kinematics of the knee joint, the complex structure of the normal ACL must be built into the graft.

Methods. First the ACL was modeled and then a reconstruction of the ACL was simulated on a computer model of the cadaveric knee. Biomechanical patterns of the ACL and the modeled grafts in different spatial orientations and positions of the femoral attachments were studied. Isometricity of the peripheral and central fibers of the ACL and grafts was measured and the average fiber length change and isometric pattern of fibers in the graft were compared.

Results. None of the ACL fibers is isometric and fiber length change varies with individual fibers of the original ligament or graft. The average length change of graft fibers depends on the position of the femoral attachment in the sagittal plane. It is smaller in anterior positions in relation to the geometric center of the femoral origin of the ACL, and larger in posterior positions. The isometric pattern of fibers in the graft in isometric orientations resembles most closely the pattern of the original ACL.

Conclusions. A computer simulation of various surgical techniques of reconstruction of the ACL can be successfully used for the study of biomechanics. The most significant kinematic characteristics of the ACL is gradual recruitment of graft fibers during knee extension, which can be defined as the pattern of isometricity. The isometric pattern of the graft is primarily influenced by spatial orientation.