抑肽酶对非体外循环冠脉搭桥术病人凝血功能和血小板功能的影响

目的 研究抑肽酶对非体外循环冠脉搭桥术（OPCAB）病人凝血功能及血小板功能的影响。方法 择期行OPCAB病人32例，ASAⅢ或Ⅳ级，年龄46～75岁，体重65．92kg，随机分为2组（n=16）：对照组（C组）和抑肽酶组（A组）。C组不用任何抗纤溶药物，A组将抑肽酶200万KIU溶于100ml生理盐水中，自切皮开始静脉输注，30min内输注完毕，另外100万KIU以20．30万KIU／h速率输注至术毕。分别于切皮前1min、肝素化前1min（此时已用抑肽酶200万KIU）、术毕、术后6h和术后24h经颈内静脉采血5ml，用流式细胞仪测定血小板膜糖蛋白GPⅡb／Ⅲa和血小板α颗粒膜蛋白-14．0（CD62p），用比浊法测定部分凝血活酶时间（Am）、凝血酶原时间（PT）和纤维蛋白原，用硅藻土激活剂测定激活全血凝固时间（ACT）。记录术后24h出血量。结果 组间GPⅡb／Ⅲa、PT和ACT比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。与C组比较，A组CD62p肝素化前1min、术毕和术后6h降低，Am肝素化前1min和术毕时延长，术后24h出血量减少（P〈0．01）。结论 抑肽酶抑制OPCAB病人血小板激活和内源性凝血系统，减少术后出血。     

抑肽酶对血小板膜糖蛋白功能的影响

目的：探讨抑肽酶对心转流（CPB）期间血小板功能的保护作用。方法：选择20例先天性心脏病房,室间隔缺损在CPB下行心内修补术的病人,随机分为对照组（不加抑肽酶）和抑肽酶组（加抑肽酶200万KIU）,每组10例,分别测定不同时间点的血小板计数和血小板膜糖蛋白GP Ⅰb,GPⅡb-Ⅲa的表达。结果：与对照组相比,抑肽酶组血小板计数和血小板膜糖蛋白GPⅠb,GPⅡb-Ⅲa的表达减少明显减轻（P＜0．05）,术后出血也明显减少,结论：抑肽酶在体外循环期间可抑制血小板计数和血小板膜糖蛋白GPIb和GPⅡb-Ⅲa的减少,对血小板功能具有保护作用。     

抑肽酶在颅脑手术中的止血作用观察

目的观察抑肽酶在颅脑手术中对病人出血量及凝血功能的影响。方法40例择期颅脑手术病人,ASAⅠ~Ⅱ级。随机均分为观察组(A组)和对照组(B组)。两组均采用气管内全麻,异氟醚、丙泊酚静吸维持麻醉。A组在麻醉诱导后静注抑肽酶150万KIU后持续泵注抑肽酶50万KIU/h,直至手术结束停药;B组持续泵注生理盐水。分别在术前、术毕、术后6h和24h时间点上抽血检测红细胞(RBC)、血红蛋白(Hb)、红细胞压积(Hct)、血小板计数(plt)和纤维蛋白原(Fib)。统计手术失血量、输血量。结果两组相比,A组手术时间明显少于B组(P<0.05),手术失血量和输血量也明显少于B组(P<0.01);由于出血较多,两组的Hb都有明显下降,经过输异体血之后,稳定在90g/L左右。两组plt和Fib浓度变化差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论在颅脑手术中应用抑肽酶静脉注入进行术中止血,可显著减少出血量,同时对凝血功能和血小板计数无明显影响。     

供肝保养液中不同浓度肝素对肝移植术患者新肝期凝血功能的影响

目的 探讨供肝保养液中不同浓度肝素对肝移植术患者新肝期凝血功能的影响。方法拟行肝移植术的终末期肝病患者40例，随机分为3组，供肝保养液中肝素浓度分别为2000U／L（Ⅰ组，n=14）、8000U／L（Ⅱ组，n=12）、20000U／L（Ⅲ组，n=14）。新肝期前15min（T0）、新肝期5、30、60、120、180min（T1、T2、T3、T4、T5）采中心静脉血，行Sonoclot凝血和血小板功能分析，各组随机测定3-4例患者血浆肝素浓度（高效液相色谱法）。结果与T0相比，Ⅲ组L1-4时玻璃珠激活凝血时间（gbACT）均延长，T1-3，时血块凝结速率（CR）减慢，T1-2时血小板功能（PF）减小，Ⅱ组T1,2时gbACT延长，T1时CR减慢（P〈0．05或0．01），Ⅲ组上述指标的变化较Ⅱ组明显；T1,2时Ⅲ组血浆肝素浓度高于Ⅱ组（P〈0．05），Ⅰ组新肝期各时点均未检测到肝素。结论保养液中高浓度肝素可抑制肝移植术患者新肝期凝血功能。     

抑肽酶捡了芝麻丢了西瓜?

抑肽酶（aprotinin）是数十年前就用于治疗胰腺炎的老药，1986年经英国国家心肺研究所（National Heart and Lung Institute）的心外科医师研究证实，抑肽酶为非特异性丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂，可抑制Ⅻ因子的激活，抑制纤溶，保护血小板Ⅱa／mb蛋白，手术开始缓慢给予200万KIU抑肽酶后，每小时给予50万KIU，体外循环预充液中加入200万KIU，可使体外循环下心脏直视手术的失血量减少46％左右。1993年抑肽酶经拜尔医药保健有限公司引进我国，随后，国产抑肽酶问世。自20世纪90年代，国内外越来越多地将大剂量抑肽酶应用于体外循环下心脏手术和大出血的手术，主要目的是减少术中出血量，其应用已经被列入许多国家的临床规范，也不乏严谨研究支持其安全性。不仅如此，还有许多实验和试验表明，给予上述大剂量抑肽酶还可以有效地抑制炎性反应，保护缺血器官，本期发表的抑肽酶器官保护效应的文章，亦属此类。     

乌司他丁对恶性肿瘤根治术患者凝血功能的影响

目的探讨乌司他丁（ulinastatin,UTI）对恶性肿瘤根治术患者凝血功能的影响。方法择期ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级腹部恶性肿瘤根治术患者60例,随机均分为三组。所有患者采用气管插管全麻,麻醉诱导后Ⅰ组静注UTI 5 kU/kg;Ⅱ组静注UTI 10 kU/kg,均加入生理盐水100 ml;Ⅲ组给予等容量生理盐水。于入室时（T₀）、切除肿瘤时（T₁）、术毕（T₂）、术后24 h（T₃）采静脉血检测血常规及凝血功能指标及D-D二聚体,并记录术中出血量、输血量及术后24 h引流量等。结果 T₁～T₃时三组血小板计数（Plt）均明显低于、纤维蛋白原（FIB）、D-D二聚体均明显高于T₀时（P<0.05）,Ⅲ组Plt明显低于、FIB、D-D二聚体均明显高于Ⅰ、Ⅱ组,Ⅰ组Plt明显低于、FIB、D-D二聚体均明显高于Ⅱ组（P<0.05）。T₁～T₃时凝血酶原时间（PT）、部分凝血活酶时间（APTT）、凝血酶时间（TT）Ⅲ组明显短于Ⅰ、Ⅱ组,Ⅱ组明显长于Ⅰ组（P<0.05）。围术期出血量、输血量及24 h引流量Ⅲ组明显高于Ⅰ、Ⅱ组,Ⅰ组则明显高于Ⅱ组（P<0.05）。结论 UTI可以抑制凝血酶和凝血因子的激活,抑制纤溶系统的激活,保护血小板功能,改善凝血系统功能。5 kU/kg UTI可适当改善患者的凝血状态,而10kU/kg则对凝血功能有显著的改善。     

自体血小板分离联合术中自体血回输对骨科手术患者凝血功能的影响作用

目的观察术前自体血小板分离联合术中自体血回输对骨科手术患者凝血功能的影响作用。方法60例骨科择期手术患者（预计出血量〉1000ml,ASAⅠ～Ⅱ级）,随机分为3组,每组20例患者。Ⅰ组采用术前自体血小板分离联合术中自体血回输,Ⅱ组采用单纯术中自体血回输,Ⅲ组不进行任何血液保护措施。各组分别于麻醉前、血小板分离后10min、保存的血小板或自体血回输前10min、回输后10min、术后24h、术后48h检测相应时点的血红蛋白水平、凝血功能、血小板水平和聚集功能、术中术后出血量及异体输血情况。结果三组的一般资料、术中出血量、术中术后的血红蛋白水平比较未见明显差异。与Ⅰ组相比,Ⅱ、Ⅲ组术后24h和术后48h的血小板水平和聚集功能明显降低（P〈0．05）,术后出血量及异体输血率则明显增高（P〈0．01）。结论术前自体血小板分离联合术中自体血回输可明显改善骨科手术患者的凝血功能,并有效降低术后出血量和异体血的输注。     

腹腔镜脾切除术学习曲线分析

目的：总结腹腔镜脾切除术的手术经验及学习曲线。方法：将92例患者根据就诊时间分为4组,对比4组患者手术时间、术中出血量、中转开腹（手助）率、术后流质恢复时间、术后住院时间及并发症。结果：手术时间逐渐缩短,Ⅱ组、Ⅲ组、Ⅳ组与Ⅰ组相比差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）,Ⅲ组、Ⅳ组与Ⅰ组、Ⅱ组相比差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;术中出血量逐渐减少,4组两两相比差异均有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;中转开腹（手助）率降低,但各组相比差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）;术后流质饮食恢复时间、住院时间及并发症逐渐减少,术后住院时间Ⅲ组、Ⅳ组与Ⅰ组、Ⅱ组相比差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论：腹腔镜脾切除术的学习曲线约为20例,完成45例手术后,此技术的熟练程度、稳定状态明显提高。     

小剂量抑肽酶在体外循环中保护血小板作用及减少术后出血

为评估小剂量抑肽酶（１．５×１０６ＫＩＵ）对血小板功能的保护及止血作用，用药组（Ａ组ｎ＝２０）体外循环（ＣＰＢ）预充液中一次性加抑肽酶，对照组（Ｂ组ｎ＝２０）加入同容积生理盐水。检测结果Ａ组较Ｂ组血小板计数、血小板聚集率均增高；血栓烷Ｂ２下降；ＡＣＴ延长但中和效果佳；术中止血时间缩短；术后失血量和输血量明显降低。结论：小剂量抑肽酶减轻血小板膜受体在ＣＰＢ中的损害、增强其聚集功能、减轻血小板数量下降；抑肽酶与肝素有协同作用并竞争性抑制肝素对血小板功能抑制；明显减少手术后失血和输血量。     

抑肽酶应用的临床进展

抑肽酶是从牛肺中提取的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂,它主要抑制纤溶酶,广泛用于心肺转流(CPB)心脏手术中,以减少术中、术后出血,现也应用于非心脏大手术如骨科大手术和肝脏移植手术。因纤溶酶对血小板数量和功能有破坏作用,抑肽酶对血小板也具保护作用,抑肽酶能抑制中性白细胞激活和脱颗粒,减少补体激活,具有抗炎作用而进一步受到临床的重视。 抑肽酶的计量单位和用量 抑肽酶最先的计量单位为激肽释放酶抑制单位(Kal-likvein inhibitory unit,KIU)。按照 Smith的标准全量为:在CPB前静滴抑肽酶 200万 KIU,CPB机预充液加 200万     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.