Neighborhood built environment and transport and leisure physical activity: findings using objective exposure and outcome measures in New Zealand

Background: Evidence of associations between neighborhood built environments and transport-related physical activity (PA) is accumulating, but few studies have investigated associations with leisure-time PA.Objective: We investigated associations of five objectively measured characteristics of the neighborhood built environment—destination access, street connectivity, dwelling density, land-use mix and streetscape quality—with residents’ self-reported PA (transport, leisure, and walking) and accelerometer-derived measures of PA.Methods: Using a multicity stratified cluster sampling design, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of 2,033 adults who lived in 48 New Zealand neighborhoods. Multilevel regression modeling, which was adjusted for individual-level (sociodemographic and neighborhood preference) and neighborhood-level (deprivation) confounders, was used to estimate associations of built environment with PA.Results: We found that 1-SD increases in destination access, street connectivity, and dwelling density were associated with any versus no self-reported transport, leisure, or walking PA, with increased odds ranging from 21% [street connectivity with leisure PA, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0%, 47%] to 44% (destination accessibility with walking, 95% CI: 17%, 79%). Among participants who self-reported some PA, a 1-SD increase in street connectivity was associated with a 13% increase in leisure PA (95% CI: 0, 28%). SD increases in destination access, street connectivity, and dwelling density were each associated with 7% increases in accelerometer counts.Conclusions: Associations of neighborhood destination access, street connectivity, and dwelling density with self-reported and objectively measured PA were moderately strong, indicating the potential to increase PA through changes in neighborhood characteristics.     

Urban form and older residents' service use, walking, driving, quality of life, and neighborhood satisfaction

PURPOSE: This study explored the relationship between pedestrian-friendly urban form as reflected in new urbanism design guidelines, and neighborhood service use, walking, driving, quality of life, and neighborhood satisfaction among older women. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey compared residents of census tracts similar indemographic characteristics but differing in urban form. SETTING: The setting was urban and suburban areas of Portland, Oregon. SUBJECTS: The sample consisted of 372 females living alone over age 70 in six census tracts; 133 (36%) completed surveys. MEASURES: The New Urbanism Index rated the physical features of respondents' neighborhoods. The Neighborhood Resident Survey assessed travel modes and neighborhood satisfaction. The Quality of Life Index measured resident well-being. The Dartmouth COOP Functional Health Charts measured health status. Group comparisons were made with t-tests and regression analysis. RESULTS: Although limited by the cross-sectional design, the study showed that new urbanism partially explained several differences in service use and activity: distance to a grocery store (r2 change = .11, p = .001), number of services used within 1 mile from home (r2 change = .06, p = .007), number of walking activities (r2 change = .08, p = .001), number of services accessed by walking (r2 change = .14, p = .000), and number of services accessed by driving (r2 change = .05, p = .001). CONCLUSIONS: Traditional urban neighborhoods with mixed services and good pedestrian access were associated with increased walking among older residents.     

Perceived neighborhood environmental attributes associated with adults' transport-related walking and cycling: Findings from the USA, Australia and Belgium

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Active transportation has the potential to contribute considerably to overall physical activity levels in adults and is likely to be influenced by neighborhood-related built environment characteristics. Previous studies that examined the associations between built environment attributes and active transportation, focused mainly on transport-related walking and were conducted within single countries, limiting environmental variability. We investigated the direction and shape of relationships of perceived neighborhood attributes with transport-related cycling and walking in three countries; and examined whether these associations differed by country and gender. METHODS: Data from the USA (Baltimore and Seattle), Australia (Adelaide) and Belgium (Ghent) were pooled. In total, 6,014 adults (20-65 years, 55.7% women) were recruited in high-/low-walkable and high-/low-income neighborhoods. All participants completed the Neighborhood Environmental Walkability Scale and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Generalized additive mixed models were used to estimate the strength and shape of the associations. RESULTS: Proximity to destinations, good walking and cycling facilities, perceiving difficulties in parking near local shopping areas, and perceived aesthetics were included in a 'cyclability' index. This index was linearly positively related to transport-related cycling and no gender- or country-differences were observed. The 'walkability' index consisted of perceived residential density, land use mix access, proximity of destinations and aesthetics. A non-linear positive relationship with transport-related walking was found. This association was stronger in women than in men, and country-specific associations were identified: the strongest association was observed in Seattle, the weakest in Adelaide. In Ghent, the association weakened at higher levels of walkability. CONCLUSIONS: For cycling, consistent correlates were found in the three countries, but associations were less straightforward for transport-related walking. Moreover, the identified neighborhood environmental correlates were different for walking compared to cycling. In order to further clarify the shape of these associations and reach more specific international guidelines for developing walkable and bikeable neighborhoods, future studies should include even more countries to maximize environmental variability.     

Built environment, adiposity, and physical activity in adults aged 50-75

BACKGROUND: Few studies have investigated the built environment and its association with health-especially excess adiposity-and physical activity in the immediate pre-Baby Boom/early-Baby Boom generations, soon to be the dominant demographic in the U.S. The purpose of this study was to examine this relationship. METHODS: This study used a cross-sectional, multilevel design with neighborhoods as the primary sampling unit (PSU). Residents (N=1221; aged 50-75) were recruited from 120 neighborhoods in Portland OR. The independent variables at the PSU level involved GIS-derived measures of land-use mix, distribution of fast-food outlets, street connectivity, access to public transportation, and green and open spaces. Dependent variables included resident-level measures of excess adiposity (BMI>or=25), three walking activities, and physical activity. Data were collected in 2006-2007 and analyzed in 2007. RESULTS: Each unit (i.e., 10%) increase in land-use mix was associated with a 25% reduction in the prevalence of overweight/obesity. However, a 1-SD increase in the density of fast-food outlets was associated with a 7% increase in overweight/obesity. Higher mixed-use land was positively associated with all three types of walking activities and the meeting of physical activity recommendations. Neighborhoods with high street connectivity, high density of public transit stations, and green and open spaces were related in varying degrees to walking and the meeting of physical activity recommendations. The analyses adjusted for neighborhood- and resident-level sociodemographic characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest the need for public health and city planning officials to address modifiable neighborhood-level, built-environment characteristics to create more livable residential communities aimed at both addressing factors that may influence unhealthy eating and promoting active, healthy lifestyles in this rapidly growing population.     

Neighborhood walkability, physical activity, and walking behavior: the Swedish Neighborhood and Physical Activity (SNAP) study

More knowledge concerning the association between physical activity and objectively measured attributes of the built environment is needed. Previous studies on the association between objectively measured neighborhood walkability, physical activity, and walking have been conducted in the U.S. or Australia and research findings are available from only one country in Europe – Belgium. The first aim of this Swedish study of 2269 adults was to examine the associations between neighborhood walkability and walking for active transportation or leisure, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and whether these hypothesized associations are moderated by age, gender, income, marital status and neighborhood-level socioeconomic status. The second aim was to determine how much of the total variance of the walking and physical activity outcomes can be attributed to neighborhood-level differences. Neighborhood walkability was objectively measured by GIS methods. An index consisting of residential density, street connectivity, and land use mix was constructed to define 32 highly and less walkable neighborhoods in Stockholm City. MVPA was measured objectively during 7 days with an accelerometer and walking was assessed using the validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Multilevel linear as well as logistic models (mixed-effects, mixed-distribution models) were used in the analysis. The statistically significant and “adjusted” results for individuals living in highly walkable neighborhoods, as compared to those living in less walkable neighborhoods, were: (1) 77% and 28% higher odds for walking for active transportation and walking for leisure, respectively, (2) 50 min more walking for active transportation/week, and (3) 3.1 min more MVPA/day. The proportion of the total variance at the neighborhood level was low and ranged between 0.0% and 2.1% in the adjusted models. The findings of the present study stress that future policies concerning the built environment must be based on context-specific evidence, particularly in the light of the fact that neighborhood redevelopments are time-consuming and expensive.     

Do Relationships Between Environmental Attributes and Recreational Walking Vary According to Area-Level Socioeconomic Status?

Residents of areas with lower socioeconomic status (SES) are known to be less physically active during leisure time. Neighborhood walkability has been shown to be related to recreational walking equally in low and high SES areas. This cross-sectional study tested whether associations of specific environmental attributes, measured objectively and subjectively, with walking for recreation were moderated by area-level SES. The data of the North West Adelaide Health Study collected in 2007 (n = 1500, mean age 57) were used. Self-reported walking frequency was the outcome of the study. Environmental exposure measures included objectively measured walkability components (residential density, intersection density, land use mix, and net retail area ratio) and perceived attributes (access to destinations, neighborhood esthetics, walking infrastructure, traffic/barriers, and crime safety). Participants’ suburbs were categorized into low and high SES areas using an indicator of socioeconomic disadvantage. Low SES areas had lower scores in residential density, neighborhood esthetics, walking infrastructure, traffic/barriers, and crime safety. Recreational walking was associated with residential density, access to destinations, esthetics, traffic/barriers, and crime safety. Effect modification was observed for two attributes (out of nine): residential density was associated with walking only in low SES areas, while walking infrastructure was associated with walking only in high SES areas. The associations of neighborhood environmental attributes with recreational walking were largely consistent across SES groups. However, low SES areas were disadvantaged in most perceived environmental attributes related to recreational walking. Improving such attributes in low SES neighborhoods may help close socioeconomic disparities in leisure time physical activity.Keyword: Physical activity, Neighborhood environment, Walkability, Inequality, Effect modification     

Neighborhood-based differences in physical activity: an environment scale evaluation

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated a neighborhood environment survey and compared the physical activity and weight status of the residents in 2 neighborhoods. METHODS: On 2 occasions, 107 adults from neighborhoods with differing "walkability" were selected to complete a survey on their neighborhood environment. Physical activity was assessed by self-report and by accelerometer; height and weight were assessed by self-report. RESULTS: Neighborhood environment characteristics had moderate to high test-retest reliabilities. Residents of high-walkability neighborhoods reported higher residential density, land use mix, street connectivity, aesthetics, and safety. They had more than 70 more minutes of physical activity and had lower obesity prevalence (adjusted for individual demographics) than did residents of low-walkability neighborhoods. CONCLUSIONS: The reliability and validity of self-reported neighborhood environment subscales were supported. Neighborhood environment was associated with physical activity and overweight prevalence.     

The causal influence of neighborhood design on physical activity within the neighborhood: evidence from Northern California

PURPOSE: Test for a causal relationship between neighborhood design and physical activity within the neighborhood by controlling for self-selection. DESIGN: Cross-sectional and quasi-longitudinal analyses of residents of selected neighborhoods. SETTING: Eight Northern California neighborhoods. SUBJECTS: Random sample of 1682 adults stratified by movers (moved within 1 year) and nonmovers (moved > 1 year ago) responding to self-administered mail surveys (24.7% response rate). MEASURES: Self-reported number of days in last 7 days of moderate to vigorous physical activity somewhere in the neighborhood and self-reported change in physical activity in the neighborhood from prior to moving (for movers) or from 1 year ago (for nonmovers). ANALYSIS: Zero-inflated Poisson regression for cross-sectional analysis (n = 1497); ordered probit model for quasi-longitudinal analysis (n = 1352). RESULTS: After we controlled for physical activity attitudes and neighborhood preferences, selected neighborhood design characteristics were associated with physical activity within the neighborhood and changes in selected neighborhood design characteristics were associated with changes in physical activity within the neighborhood. CONCLUSIONS: Both cross-sectional and quasi-longitudinal analyses provided evidence of a causal impact of neighborhood design. Improving physical activity options, aesthetic qualities, and social environment may increase physical activity. Critical limitations included self-report measures of physical activity, lack of measures of duration and intensity of neighborhood physical activity, lack of measures of total physical activity, and limited measures of preferences related to physical activity.     

“Do you see what I see?” – Correlates of multidimensional measures of neighborhood types and perceived physical activity–related neighborhood barriers and facilitators for urban youth

ObjectivesTo classify types of neighborhood environment and to examine the gender-specific cross-sectional associations between these neighborhood types and adolescents' perceptions of physical activity–related neighborhood barriers and facilitators.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of 350 high school students in Baltimore, Maryland, in 2006. Participants completed the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale (NEWS). Objectively GIS-measured attributes of urban form came from various sources. Classification of built environment/neighborhood types was achieved by factor analysis and cluster analysis.ResultsFour neighborhood types were identified: (1) arterial development; (2) inner-city area; (3) suburban residential; and (4) central business district. Girls who lived in suburban residential areas were less likely than their central business district counterparts to perceive the protective effects of crosswalks and pedestrian traffic signals. Girls living in inner-city neighborhoods were more likely than their central business district counterparts to perceive the traffic as being slow. Boys' perceptions of their neighborhood did not vary by neighborhood pattern.ConclusionsGirls appear to be more sensitive to their environment and perceive more physical activity–related built environment barriers compared to boys. Efforts to overcome physical activity barriers salient for adolescent girls should be tailored to the type of neighborhood.     

Neighborhood walkability and TV viewing time among Australian adults

BACKGROUND: Built-environment attributes of a neighborhood are associated with participation in physical activity and may also influence time spent in sedentary behaviors. Associations of neighborhood walkability (based on dwelling density, street connectivity, land-use mix, and net retail area) and television viewing time were compared in a large, spatially-derived sample of Australian adults. METHODS: Neighborhood-level variables (walkability and socioeconomic status [SES]) were calculated in 154 Australian census collection districts using Geographic Information Systems. Individual-level variables (TV viewing time, time spent in leisure-time physical activity, height, weight, and sociodemographic variables) were collected from adults living in urban areas of Adelaide, Australia using a mail survey (N=2224) in 2003-2004. Multilevel linear regression analysis was conducted in 2006 separately for men and women to examine variations in TV viewing time across tertiles of walkability. RESULTS: Neighborhood walkability was negatively associated with TV viewing time in women, but not in men. After controlling for neighborhood SES, body mass index, physical activity, and sociodemographic variables, women living in medium- and high-walkable neighborhoods reported significantly less TV viewing time per day (14 minutes and 17 minutes, respectively) compared to those residing in low-walkable neighborhoods. CONCLUSIONS: Built-environment attributes of neighborhoods that are related to physical activity also may play an important role in influencing sedentary behavior, particularly among women. Considering the effects of prolonged sedentary time on health risks, which are independent of physical activity, there is the need for further research to explore how environmental characteristics may contribute to the amount of time spent in sedentary behavior.     

Neighborhood Road Environments and Physical Activity Among Youth: The CLAN Study

We examined associations between objective measures of the local road environment and physical activity (including active transport) among youth. There is little empirical evidence of the impact of the road environment on physical activity among children/adolescents in their neighborhoods. Most recent studies have examined perceptions rather than objective measures of the road environment. This was a cross-sectional study of children aged 8-9 years (n = 188) and adolescents aged 13-15 years (n = 346) who were participants in the 3-year follow-up of the Children Living in Active Neighborhoods (CLAN) longitudinal study in Melbourne, Australia. At baseline (2001), they were recruited from 19 state primary schools in areas of varying socioeconomic status across Melbourne. Habitual walking/cycling to local destinations was parent-reported for children and self-reported for adolescents, while moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) outside school hours was recorded using accelerometers. Road environment features in each participant's neighborhood (area of radius 800 m around the home) were measured objectively using a geographical information system. Regression analyses found no associations between road environment variables and children's likelihood of making at least seven walking/cycling trips per week to neighborhood destinations. Adolescent girls residing in neighborhoods with two to three traffic/pedestrian lights were more likely to make seven or more walking/cycling trips per week as those whose neighborhoods had fewer traffic lights (OR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.2-6.2). For adolescent boys, residing on a cul-de-sac, compared with a through road, was associated with increases in MVPA of 9 min after school, 5 min in the evenings, and 22 min on weekend days. Speed humps were positively associated with adolescent boys' MVPA during evenings. The road environment influences physical activity among youth in different ways, according to age group, sex and type of physical activity.     

Neighborhood walkability and the walking behavior of Australian adults

BACKGROUND: The physical attributes of residential neighborhoods, particularly the connectedness of streets and the proximity of destinations, can influence walking behaviors. To provide the evidence for public health advocacy on activity-friendly environments, large-scale studies in different countries are needed. Associations of neighborhood physical environments with adults' walking for transport and walking for recreation must be better understood. METHOD: Walking for transport and walking for recreation were assessed with a validated survey among 2650 adults recruited from neighborhoods in an Australian city between July 2003 and June 2004, with neighborhoods selected to have either high or low walkability, based on objective measures of connectedness and proximity derived from geographic information systems (GIS) databases. The study design was stratified by area-level socioeconomic status, while analyses controlled for participant age, gender, individual-level socioeconomic status, and reasons for neighborhood self-selection. RESULTS: A strong independent positive association was found between weekly frequency of walking for transport and the objectively derived neighborhood walkability index. Preference for walkable neighborhoods moderated the relationship of walkability with weekly minutes, but not the frequency of walking for transport--walkability was related to higher frequency of transport walking, irrespective of neighborhood self-selection. There were no significant associations between environmental factors and walking for recreation. CONCLUSIONS: Associations of neighborhood walkability attributes with walking for transport were confirmed in Australia. They accounted for a modest but statistically significant proportion of the total variation of the relevant walking behavior. The physical environment attributes that make up the walkability index are potentially important candidate factors for future environmental and policy initiatives designed to increase physical activity.     

Neighborhood contextual factors for smoking among middle-aged Japanese: A multilevel analysis

The purpose of this study is to explore neighborhood contextual factors in terms of smoking behaviors among middle-aged Japanese, by using a multilevel analysis. Subjects were Japanese men and women, between 40 and 59 years of age (40,961 for the cross-sectional analysis, and 9,177 for the longitudinal analysis), nested in 39 neighborhoods (Kyuson). The results showed that women in a less residentially stable neighborhood were more likely to be smokers. No associations were seen between current smoking and neighborhood deprivation; however, women in the most deprived neighborhood were more likely to quit smoking. This study is the first to demonstrate the associations between neighborhood environment and current smoking or smoking cessation, in a Japanese setting. The findings imply that policy makers should consider targeting neighborhood conditions in order to help reduce smoking prevalence, especially among women.     

Relation between neighborhood environments and obesity in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

This study investigated associations between neighborhood physical and social environments and body mass index in 2,865 participants of the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) aged 45-84 years and residing in Maryland, New York, and North Carolina. Neighborhood (census tract) environments were measured in non-MESA participants residing in MESA neighborhoods (2000-2002). The neighborhood physical environment score combined measures of a better walking environment and greater availability of healthy foods. The neighborhood social environment score combined measures of greater aesthetic quality, safety, and social cohesion and less violent crime. Marginal maximum likelihood was used to estimate associations between neighborhood environments and body mass index (kg/m(2)) before and after adjustment for individual-level covariates. MESA residents of neighborhoods with better physical environments had lower body mass index (mean difference per standard deviation higher neighborhood measure = -2.38 (95% confidence interval (CI): -3.38, -1.38) kg/m(2) for women and -1.20 (95% CI: -1.84, -0.57) kg/m(2) for men), independent of age, race/ethnicity, education, and income. Attenuation of these associations after adjustment for diet and physical activity suggests a mediating role of these behaviors. In men, the mean body mass index was higher in areas with better social environments (mean difference = 0.52 (95% CI: 0.07, 0.97) kg/m(2)). Improvement in the neighborhood physical environment should be considered for its contribution to reducing obesity.     

Stepping towards causation: Do built environments or neighborhood and travel preferences explain physical activity,driving, and obesity?

Evidence documents associations between neighborhood design and active and sedentary forms of travel. Most studies compare travel patterns for people located in different types of neighborhoods at one point in time adjusting for demographics. Most fail to account for either underlying neighborhood selection factors (reasons for choosing a neighborhood) or preferences (neighborhoods that are preferred) that impact neighborhood selection and behavior. Known as self-selection, this issue makes it difficult to evaluate causation among built form, behavior, and associated outcomes and to know how much more walking and less driving could occur through creating environments conducive to active transport. The current study controls for neighborhood selection and preference and isolates the effect of the built environment on walking, car use, and obesity. Separate analyses were conducted among 2056 persons in the Atlanta, USA based Strategies for Metropolitan Atlanta's Regional Transportation and Air Quality (SMARTRAQ) travel survey on selection factors and 1466 persons in the SMARTRAQ community preference sub-survey. A significant proportion of the population are "mismatched" and do not live in their preferred neighborhood type. Factors influencing neighborhood selection and individual preferences, and current neighborhood walkability explained vehicle travel distance after controlling for demographic variables. Individuals who preferred and lived in a walkable neighborhood walked most (33.9% walked) and drove 25.8 miles per day on average. Individuals that preferred and lived in car dependent neighborhoods drove the most (43 miles per day) and walked the least (3.3%). Individuals that do not prefer a walkable environment walked little and show no change in obesity prevalence regardless of where they live. About half as many participants were obese (11.7%) who prefer and live in walkable environments than participants who prefer car dependent environments (21.6%). Findings suggest that creating walkable environments may result in higher levels of physical activity and less driving and in slightly lower obesity prevalence for those preferring walkability.     

Urban–Rural Differences in Physical Activity in Belgian Adults and the Importance of Psychosocial Factors

Recent research in urban planning and public health has drawn attention to the associations between urban form and physical activity in adults. Because little is known on the urban–rural differences in physical activity, the main aims of the present study were to examine differences in physical activity between urban and rural adults and to investigate the moderating effects of the physical environment on the relationship between psychosocial factors and physical activity. In Flanders, Belgium, five rural and five urban neighborhoods were selected. A sample of 350 adults (20–65 years of age; 35 adults per neighborhood) participated in the study. Participants wore a pedometer for 7 days, and self-reported physical activity and psychosocial data were also collected. Results showed that urban adults took more steps/day and reported more walking and cycling for transport in the neighborhood, more recreational walking in the neighborhood, and more walking for transportation outside the neighborhood than rural adults. Rural adults reported more recreational cycling in the neighborhoods. The physical environment was a significant moderator of the associations between several psychosocial factors (modeling from family, self-efficacy, and perceived barriers) and physical activity. In rural participants, adults with psychosocial scores above average were more physically active, whereas there were no differences in physical activity according to psychosocial factors in urban participants. These results are promising and plead for the development of multidimensional interventions, targeting specific population subgroups. In rural environments, where changing the environment would be a very challenging task, interventions focusing on modifiable psychosocial constructs could possibly be effective.     

Built and social environments associations with adolescent overweight and activity

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the patterning of neighborhood characteristics, beyond the basic urban, rural, suburban trichotomy, and its impact on physical activity (PA) and overweight. METHODS: Nationally representative data (National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, 1994-1995, n = 20,745) were collected. Weight, height, PA, and sedentary behavior were self-reported. Using diverse measures of the participants' residential neighborhoods (e.g., socioeconomic status, crime, road type, street connectivity, PA recreation facilities), cluster analyses identified homogeneous groups of adolescents sharing neighborhood characteristics. Poisson regression predicted relative risk (RR) of being physically active (five or more bouts/week of moderate to vigorous PA) and overweight (body mass index equal or greater than the 95th percentile, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/National Center for Health Statistics growth curves). RESULTS: Six robust neighborhood patterns were identified: (1) rural working class; (2) exurban; (3) newer suburban; (4) upper-middle class, older suburban; (5) mixed-race urban; and (6) low-socioeconomic-status (SES) inner-city areas. Compared to adolescents living in newer suburbs, those in rural working-class (adjusted RR[ARR] = 1.38, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.13-1.69), exurban (ARR = 1.30, CI = 1.04-1.64), and mixed-race urban (ARR = 1.31, CI = 1.05-1.64) neighborhoods were more likely to be overweight, independent of individual SES, age, and race/ethnicity. Adolescents living in older suburban areas were more likely to be physically active than residents of newer suburbs (ARR = 1.11, CI = 1.04-1.18). Those living in low-SES inner-city neighborhoods were more likely to be active, though not significantly so, compared to mixed-race urban residents (ARR = 1.09, CI = 1.00-1.18). CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate disadvantageous associations between specific rural and urban environments and behavior, illustrating important effects of the neighborhood on health and the inherent complexity of assessing residential landscapes across the United States. Simple classical urban-suburban-rural measures mask these important complexities.     

Perceived neighborhood environment and walking for specific purposes among elderly Japanese

Background

Recent research has revealed the importance of neighborhood environment as a determinant of physical activity. However, evidence among elderly adults is limited. This study examined the association between perceived neighborhood environment and walking for specific purposes among Japanese elderly adults.

Methods

This population-based, cross-sectional study enrolled 1921 participants (age: 65–74 years, men: 51.9%). Neighborhood environment (International Physical Activity Questionnaire Environmental Module) and walking for specific purposes (ie, transportation or recreation) were assessed by self-report. Multilevel logistic regression analyses with individuals at level 1 and neighborhoods at level 2 were conducted to examine the association between environment and walking, after adjustment for potential confounders.

Results

Access to exercise facilities, social environment, and aesthetics were associated with total neighborhood walking. Odds ratios (95% CI) were 1.23 (1.00–1.51), 1.39 (1.14–1.71), and 1.48 (1.21–1.81), respectively. Regarding walking for specific purposes, social environment and aesthetics were consistent correlates of both transportation walking and recreational walking. Environmental correlates differed by specific types of walking and by sex. Transportation walking significantly correlated with a greater variety of environmental attributes. Sex differences were observed, especially for transportation walking. Bicycle lanes, crime safety, traffic safety, aesthetics, and household motor vehicles were significant correlates among men, while access to shops, access to exercise facilities, and social environment were important among women.

Conclusions

Specific environment–walking associations differed by walking purpose and sex among elderly adults. Social environment and aesthetics were consistent correlates of both transportation walking and recreational walking. Improving these environmental features might be effective in promoting physical activity among elderly Japanese.Key words: physical activity, transportation, recreation, policy     

Unsafe to play? Neighborhood disorder and lack of safety predict reduced physical activity among urban children and adolescents

PURPOSE: Lack of physical activity is associated with increased risk of overweight and cardiovascular disease, conditions associated with lower socioeconomic status (SES). Associations between activity levels of urban youth and limited access to safe recreation areas in their neighborhoods of residence were investigated. DESIGN: Analyses of data from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, a multilevel longitudinal study of families and communities, are reported. SETTING: Chicago, Illinois. SUBJECTS: Individual-level data were obtained from 1378 youth 11 to 16 years old and caregivers living in 80 neighborhood clusters. Neighborhood-level data were collected from 8782 community residents and videotapes of 15,141 block faces. MEASURES: Parental estimates of hours youth spent in recreational programming were used to estimate physical activity. A scale of residents' assessment of neighborhood safety for children's play was created; disorder measures came from videotaped observations. RESULTS: Physical activity averaged 2.7 hours/week (SD = 5.0), varying significantly across neighborhoods. Using hierarchical linear regression, SES, age, and male gender, but not body mass index, were independently associated with physical activity. Lower neighborhood safety and social disorder were significantly associated with less activity, controlling for demographics. CONCLUSIONS: One mechanism for reduced physical activity among youth may be the influence of unsafe neighborhoods. Neighborhood interventions to increase safety and reduce disorder may be efficacious in increasing physical activity, thereby reducing risk of overweight and cardiovascular disease.     

Fear of walking outdoors. A multilevel ecologic analysis of crime and disorder

BACKGROUND: Although a number of studies have tested ecologic models that postulate relationships among social networks, the built environment, and active living, few neighborhood-based studies have considered the role of crime and violence. This study investigates the degree to which individual-level demographic characteristics and neighborhood-level physical and social characteristics are associated with increased fear of crime. METHODS: Data were analyzed in 2007 from a 2005 survey of 901 randomly selected individuals living in 55 neighborhoods in Washington DC. Multilevel ordered logit regression was used to examine associations between individual-level and neighborhood-level characteristics and how often fear of crime prevents a respondent from walking outdoors. RESULTS: Age and female gender were associated with an increase in fear; the percentage of a resident's life spent in the same neighborhood was associated with a decrease in fear. Results of cross-level interactions showed that at the neighborhood level, women were more fearful than men in neighborhoods without violence, but that the difference in fear between men and women shrinks as neighborhood violence increases. Collective efficacy was found to increase fear among black respondents and had no effect on fear among nonblack respondents. CONCLUSIONS: If the study of neighborhoods and active living is to progress and contribute to both etiologic understanding and policy formation, it is essential that theoretical and empirical models consider the impact of violence and fear on walking. Efforts to increase active living in urban neighborhoods that do not account for the impact of crime and fear may fall short of their intended outcomes.