Implications of Shift Work for Parent‐Adolescent Relationships in Dual‐Earner Families

Abstract: This investigation examined the implications of shift work for parent‐adolescent relationship quality—intimacy, conflict, parental knowledge, and involvement—in a sample of 376 dual‐earner families. The findings suggested that mothers’ relationships with their adolescents were not negatively impacted by their working nonstandard schedules but fathers’ relationships were. Adolescents with shift working mothers reported more relationship intimacy than adolescents with daytime working mothers. In contrast, fathers with nonstandard shifts knew significantly less about their teens’ daily activities than did fathers with daytime shifts. The combination of fathers having nonstandard schedules and a marriage with high conflict predicted less intimacy with adolescents. Our findings suggest the need for policy that assists nonstandard workers with staying knowledgeable about their adolescents’ daily activities.     

More controlling child-feeding practices are found among parents of boys with an average body mass index compared with parents of boys with a high body mass index

OBJECTIVE: To determine if differences existed in mothers' and fathers' perceptions of their sons' weight, controlling child-feeding practices (ie, restriction, monitoring, and pressure to eat), and parenting styles (ie, authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) by their sons' body mass index (BMI). DESIGN: One person (L.S.B.) interviewed mothers and boys using validated questionnaires and measured boys' weight and height; fathers completed questionnaires independently. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Subjects were white, preadolescent boys and their parents. Boys were grouped by their BMI into an average BMI group (n=25; BMI percentile between 33rd and 68th) and a high BMI group (n=24; BMI percentile > or = 85th). STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Multivariate analyses of variance and analyses of variance. RESULTS: Mothers and fathers of boys with a high BMI saw their sons as more overweight (mothers P=.03, fathers P=.01), were more concerned about their sons' weight (P<.0001, P=.004), and used pressure to eat with their sons less often than mothers and fathers of boys with an average BMI (P<.0001, P<.0001). In addition, fathers of boys with a high BMI monitored their sons' eating less often than fathers of boys with an average BMI (P=.006). No differences were found in parenting by boys' BMI groups for either mothers or fathers. CONCLUSIONS: More controlling child-feeding practices were found among mothers (pressure to eat) and fathers (pressure to eat and monitoring) of boys with an average BMI compared with parents of boys with a high BMI. A better understanding of the relationships between feeding practices and boys' weight is necessary. However, longitudinal research is needed to provide evidence of causal association.     

The effects of family structure, parent-child relationship and parental monitoring on early sexual behaviour among adolescents in nine European countries

AIMS: To identify the influence of family structure, parent-child relationship and parental monitoring on adolescents' involvement in early sexual behaviour. METHODS: The study was undertaken in the context of the World Health Organization collaborative Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children study. The representative samples were drawn from 10 European countries. A group of 14,287 (6716 boys and 7571 girls) 15-year-olds was surveyed. The data were collected by standardized questionnaires. Adolescents were asked about sexual behaviour, family structure, parent-child communication, and parental control. A logistic regression analysis was applied to assess the impact of determinants. RESULTS: Greenlandic adolescents were predominantly engaged in early sexual behaviour. Intact family was a key protective factor for adolescents' early sexual behaviour. It significantly decreased both boys' and girls' involvement in early sexual behaviour. Close parent-adolescent relationships and a high level of parental monitoring were found to be less protective factors than family structure. Easy communication with parents, especially with the mother, was more significant for girls' than for boys' early sexual behaviour. A low level of maternal monitoring had a higher impact on boys' early sexual behaviour, while a low level of paternal monitoring had a higher impact on girls. For both maternal and paternal monitoring, the strongest relationship was observed among Hungarian adolescents, but among Greenlanders it was not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Many 15-year-olds in European countries are engaged in early sexual behaviour. A close parent- child relationship and a high level of parental monitoring are not as important for adolescents' early sexual behaviour as an intact family.     

Relational Aggression in Adolescents’ Sibling Relationships: Links to Sibling and Parent‐Adolescent Relationship Quality*

Abstract: This study examined the links between sibling relational aggression and other sibling relationship qualities (i.e., intimacy, negativity, and temporal involvement) and broader parenting dynamics. Participants included 185 adolescent sibling pairs and their mothers and fathers. Data were gathered during home interviews and a series of nightly phone calls with adolescents and parents. Findings revealed that sibling relational aggression was related to sibling intimacy and negativity. In addition, connections emerged between relational aggression and qualities of the parent‐child relationship, parents’ differential treatment, and parents’ strategies for handling sibling conflict.     

Self-reported weight and height in adolescents and their parents.

Self-reported and measured weight and height were compared in a sample of adolescents aged 15 years (109 boys; 95 girls) and their parents (135 fathers; 190 mothers) recruited from secondary schools in the urban area of Geelong, Victoria, Australia. On average the adolescents' self-reported weight and height did not differ to a greater extent from the measured values than did that of their parents for their own weight and height but differences for individuals were much more variable. Self-reported weight was significantly underestimated and height over-estimated by both adolescents and parents. Body size had little effect on the extent of underestimation of weight and overestimation of height. The precision of reporting varied both with age and sex, while reporting bias in the parents, but not the adolescents', was influenced by father's occupation score. The educational level of the parents, however, had no statistically significant effect on reporting bias. The extent to which weight was underestimated and height overestimated was no greater than that observed in adults and suggests that group means reported for weight and height are likely to be as valid a measure of actual weight and height as in adults.     

Adolescent views of diabetes-related parent conflict and support: a focus group analysis.

PURPOSE: To increase understanding of adolescent-parent diabetes-related conflicts and supports in the management of type 1 diabetes by means of a focus group research approach. METHODS: Twenty-four adolescents (10 boys and 14 girls, age 13-15 years; 97% white) participated in three same-sex focus groups at two diabetes summer camps. The focus group leader used a prepared set of open-ended questions to guide the 90-minute sessions. Sessions were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed by a set procedure for qualitative analysis to identify the adolescents' perspectives on parent-adolescent sources of diabetes-related conflict and support. RESULTS: Adolescents reported the following sources of diabetes-related conflict: parental worry and intrusive behaviors; parental lack of understanding and blaming behaviors, and the parents focus on the future vs. the adolescent focus on the present. With regard to diabetes-related support, the teens identified parental understanding of the demands of diabetes and parental provision of reassurance about their child's illness and normative functioning. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents' perceptions of parental worry, lack of understanding, and resulting intrusive and blaming behaviors are major areas of conflict that need to be addressed in the management of type 1 diabetes.     

Adolescents' proxy reports of parents' socioeconomic status: How valid are they?

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Children's proxy reports on indicators of their parents' socioeconomic status (SES) have either been used uncritically or dismissed as invalid. This paper examines the validity of young adolescents' reports of parental SES by comparing adolescent reports with parents' own reports of SES. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: In 1990, 924 13 year olds, along with 648 of their fathers and 735 of their mothers, participated in the baseline survey of The Norwegian Longitudinal Health Behaviour Study. Data on parental occupation were collected from both adolescents and parents at baseline, while data on parental education were collected at follow up from the adolescents at age 15 and from their parents when the adolescents were 19 years old. MAIN RESULTS: Three different ways of grouping the SES categories based on occupational data were investigated, and the strength of agreement was good for all three groups, with kappa statistics ranging from 0.65 to 0.86. There were no significant improvements of agreement when comparing adolescent data from age 15 to adolescent data from age 13. The strength of agreements between the adolescents' and parents' reports of parental education were fair; kappa statistics were 0.30 and 0.38 for fathers' and mothers' education, respectively. The proportions of unclassified answers or no responses from the adolescents were similar for questions on occupation and education, and ranged from 11% to 16%. CONCLUSIONS: The agreement between adolescents' and parents' reports of SES based on occupation was judged to be good, but adding a few specific questions may cue the adolescent to provide more detailed information, thereby reducing the numbers of unclassified answers or non-responders.     

Parenting adolescents

The period of adolescence is often thought to be one of intense stress and turmoil. Yet many parents and teens negotiate this developmental stage without extreme family conflict and without sacrificing close relationships. This review summarizes a portion of the literature on parent-adolescent relationships, focusing on monitoring and control of adolescent behavior and parenting style. Basic principles to emphasize when working with adolescents and parents are also included.     

Maternal and paternal controlling feeding practices with male and female children

This study aimed to compare maternal and paternal feeding practices with male and female children and examine the influence of the gender of both the parent and child on the relationship between parental unhealthy eating attitudes and controlling feeding practices. One hundred and eighty-eight participants (94 co-habiting mother-father dyads, mean age 36.4 years, SD=4.9), who were the parents of 46 male and 48 female children (mean age 37.7 months, SD=12.7) completed measures of unhealthy eating attitudes and feeding practices. Mothers and fathers differed significantly in their reports of unhealthy eating attitudes but not in their restrictive or pressurising feeding practices. Mothers reported greater perceived feeding responsibility and greater monitoring of their children's food intake than fathers. Bulimia scores were correlated with controlling feeding practices in mothers of girls but not boys. Fathers' body dissatisfaction was correlated with monitoring of sons' but not daughters' food intake. These findings suggest that parental extrapolation of weight concerns may be more likely to occur within mother-daughter and father-son relationships.     

Smooth Versus Rocky Transitions to Parenthood: Family Systems in Developmental Context

Using family systems theory and a dyadic growth curve, the authors examined factors associated with a smooth versus rocky transition to parenthood for 125 couples. The authors identified significant variability in couples' experiences. Although many parents reported declines in love and increases in conflict, 23% of mothers and 37% of fathers reported equal or increased love; 20% of mothers and 28% of fathers reported equal or lower conflict. Fathers of reactive infants reported higher levels of conflict, and fathers of daughters reported increasing conflict over time. Fathers' marital love decreased when their expectations were violated, and fathers' conflict increased when mothers reported violated expectations. Finally, mothers' marital conflict increased with greater changes in depressive symptoms. Despite potential gender differences, within‐couple analyses showed synchrony between partners suggesting that potential gender differences may be best treated within the couple.     

Parental provision of transportation for adolescent physical activity.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity (PA) is important to adolescents' health. Parent transportation to activity locations is a practical strategy for increasing youth PA that has rarely been examined. DESIGN: Cross-sectional surveys of students and parents. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: Ethnically diverse students (N=1678; 712 boys, 966 girls; M age=13.0 years) from 24 middle schools (grades six to eight) and their parents completed surveys (response rate=72%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Frequency of parents transporting adolescents to PA locations was studied in relation to adolescents' reported participation in PA during the previous week and their involvement in sports and activity lessons during the past year. RESULTS: Parents transported adolescents to PA locations 2.13 times per week, with boys being transported more often than girls (p=0.03). Ethnic/racial differences in frequency of transport were evidenced (p=0.002). Parent transportation for PA significantly contributed to girls' total PA (p=0.001) and their participation in sports/activity lessons (p=0.001). Transportation contributed marginally (p=0.06) to boys' total PA, but significantly to their participation in sports/activity lessons (p=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Parent provision of transportation to activity locations is associated with out-of-school PA in a diverse adolescent population. This variable should be targeted for intervention.     

Familial influences on Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescent boys' and girls' body dissatisfaction

This study examines multiple influences on preadolescent boys' and girls' body dissatisfaction over time. Mexican American and Euro-American preadolescents (n=105) completed measures addressing their body dissatisfaction. In addition, preadolescents' parents completed a measure assessing their own body dissatisfaction. Results indicate that boys' body dissatisfaction was related to their body size (body mass index, BMI) and their fathers' own body dissatisfaction; girls' body dissatisfaction was related primarily to their own body size. Findings are discussed in terms of the importance of understanding boys' increasing susceptibility to body dissatisfaction and the role fathers play in shaping boys' feelings about their bodies as they approach adolescence.     

Together but Not “Together”: Trajectories of Relationship Suspension for Low‐Income Unmarried Parents*

Abstract: We identified and examined relationship trajectories among low‐income parents, with particular attention to fathers and mothers who never marry but maintain potential for greater commitment. Through analyses of life history interviews with a diverse sample of 71 fathers in the Midwest, we used a life course framework to examine the process of relationship suspension. Findings indicated that partner support was critical in overcoming environmental and family barriers to long‐term relationships. By delinking partnering from parenting, unmarried mothers and fathers found a basis for prolonged interaction, apart from intimacy. Relationships persisted because of daily investments during many years of waiting to formalize relationships. Implications for research on relationship trajectories among low‐income families and for policy and programs are discussed.     

上海市中学生焦虑状况及其相关因素

目的 调查都市中学生焦虑的程度和内容,分析其相关因素,为干预提供更合理的建议。方法 2004年11至12月,采用中学生心理健康诊断测验及生活环境和养育方式调查表调查上海市中学生。结果 调查有效人数3050人,年龄11～18岁。焦虑程度为中等或偏下水平（0．24-0．54）,总体焦虑程度偏高的占16．7％,各项内容程度偏高的占8．8％～21．8％,主要为自责、学习焦虑、对人焦虑和过敏倾向;女生的焦虑程度普遍高于男生,男生的孤独倾向高于女生;总焦虑分随年龄增长而降低,男生除过敏倾向外的其他内容均表现为降低的趋势,女生表现为孤独倾向降低、过敏倾向增高;15岁是多个因子变化幅度最明显的年龄。与中学生焦虑相关的不利因素为：父母文化程度过低、父母个性焦虑忧郁、主要抚养者的养育态度专断或冷漠、父母之间的养育态度经常或完全矛盾、父母经常吵架、较长时间不与父母生活、被打骂的经历较多、遇到困难缺乏其他人的关心。结论 应适当降低中学生的学习压力,重视培养中学生的自信和社会交往能力。良好的家庭环境和家庭以外支持对青少年的心理健康至关重要,能够有效地降低焦虑程度。     

Parents' Experiences of Discrimination and Family Relationship Qualities: The Role of Gender

Mothers and fathers in 156 African American families reported on racial discrimination experiences, gendered traits, and warmth and conflict in family relationships. Discrimination was linked with relationship quality, but links differed for mothers and fathers. More expressive parents and less instrumental fathers had more positive relationships in the face of discrimination, but for more instrumental fathers, discrimination-relationship quality links were negative. Findings imply consideration of sociocultural and individual characteristics for family relationships.     

Correlates of using dual methods for sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy prevention among high-risk African-American female teens.

PURPOSE: To identify correlates of consistent dual-method use among African-American female adolescents at risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and pregnancy. METHODS: A convenience sample of 522 sexually active female teens attending adolescent medicine clinics, health department clinics, and school health classes volunteered. Recruitment sites were in low-income neighborhoods of Birmingham, Alabama. Adolescents completed a questionnaire and a face-to-face interview and provided vaginal swab specimens for laboratory diagnosis of STDs. Those reporting use of condoms and at least one other method of contraception, for each of the last five occasions they had sex were classified as consistent dual-method users. The questionnaire assessed frequency of adolescents' communication with their parents and partners about sex. The questionnaire also assessed two measures of parental supervision and adolescents' desire to avoid pregnancy. Multiple logistic regression assessed the independent contribution of each correlate of consistent dual-method use. RESULTS: Seventy-one adolescents (13.6%) were classified as consistent dual-method users. A strong desire to avoid pregnancy was the most influential correlate of consistent dual-method use [odds ratio (OR) =2.3]. Adolescents reporting that their parents generally knew whom they were with (OR = 2.0) and those reporting more frequent communication with parents (OR = 1.9) were also more likely to be consistent dual users. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest the need for research to examine the efficacy of interventions building on adolescent females' desire to avoid pregnancy. Study findings also suggest that interventions promoting improved parent-adolescent communication and improved parental supervision may contribute to adolescents' use of dual methods for STD and pregnancy prevention.     

亲子交流性教育对高中生婚前性行为态度的影响

目的:评价以学校为基础的亲子交流性教育开展的可行性以及对青少年婚前性行为态度的影响;方法:选取上海市某区4所高中一年级学生及其家长为对象,开展为期2年的干预活动:单纯对学生的性教育或对学生与家长的同步性教育。通过干预前后两次问卷调查评价干预的效果。结果:对学生和家长的同步性教育有效地促进了高中生与父母沟通性相关话题,尤其是异性交往话题;干预后,学生和家长同步教育组的高中生赞同婚前性行为的比例低于其他两组,多因素分析也发现,与单纯对学生的性教育相比,同步性教育使高中生对婚前性行为态度更趋向保守。结论:以学校为基础、家长参与的性教育是可行的,能更好地帮助青少年树立正确的性观念。     

Attendance Trajectory Classes Among Divorced and Separated Mothers and Fathers in the New Beginnings Program

We examined attendance trajectories among mothers and fathers in the effectiveness trial of the New Beginnings Program, a parenting-focused prevention program for divorced and separated parents. We also investigated attendance trajectory class differences on two sets of pretest covariates: one set previously linked to participation in programs not specifically targeting divorced parents (i.e., sociodemographics, perceived parenting skills, child problem behaviors, parent psychological distress) and another that might be particularly salient to participation in the context of divorce (i.e., interparental conflict, level of parent-child contact, previous marital status to the ex-spouse). For mothers and fathers, results supported four attendance trajectory classes: (1) non-attenders (NA), (2) early dropouts (ED), (3) declining attenders (DA), and (4) sustained attenders (SA). In the final model testing multiple covariates simultaneously, mothers who were EDs and DAs were more likely to be Latina than SAs, and EDs reported more interparental conflict than SAs. Mother trajectory groups did not differ on parenting skills, child problem behavior, or mother-child contact in the final or preliminary models. In the final model for fathers, EDs rated their children higher on externalizing than DAs, had less contact with their children than DAs and NAs, and reported less distress than SAs. Father trajectory groups did not differ on fathers’ age, ethnicity, income, perceived parenting skills, or interparental conflict in the final or preliminary models. Results highlight qualitatively distinct latent classes of mothers and fathers who disengage from a parenting intervention at various points. We discuss implications for intervention engagement strategies and translational science.     

河南新乡市中学生家长青春期及性病艾滋病知识和态度现状

目的了解中学生家长青春期及性病艾滋病知识、态度现况，为科学开展家庭教育、促进亲子教育提供科学依据．方法选择河南省新乡市的4所初中、高中的444名学生家长，对青春期知识、性病艾滋病及相关健康问题知识与态度进行问卷调查。结果家长对艾滋病相关知识回答正确率为62．8％～95．4％，25道相关题目中知晓率超过70％的只有15题。12道青春期卫生知识题回答正确率为63．8％～94．5％。父亲与母亲之间青春期及艾滋病相关知识得分差异无显著性。独生子女家长的知识得分高于子女数为2个的家长，大专以上文化程度的家长知识得分高于中专或高中及以下学历的家长，差异有显著性。79．3％的家长反对男青年婚前发生性行为，82．7％的家长反对女青年婚前发生性行为，19．9％的家长愿意孩子和艾滋病病人或艾滋病病毒感染者同班学习，12．4％的家长认为艾滋病与青少年无关，22．3％的家长认为艾滋病离青少年很遥远。家长艾滋病性知识来源前3位的分别为书籍、杂志(55．5％)，电视、广播(22.8％)，医学专家(13．2％)。结论家长预防艾滋病知识和青春期健康知识有待提高，对性病艾滋病相关的态度也有待改善。