Recent advances on the molecular mechanisms involved in the drug resistance of cancer cells and novel targeting therapies

This review summarizes the recent knowledge obtained on the molecular mechanisms involved in the intrinsic and acquired resistance of cancer cells to current cancer therapies. We describe the cascades that are often altered in cancer cells during cancer progression that may contribute in a crucial manner to drug resistance and disease relapse. The emphasis is on the implication of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) multidrug efflux transporters in drug disposition and antiapoptotic factors, including epidermal growth factor receptor cascades and deregulated enzymes in ceramide metabolic pathways. The altered expression and activity of these signaling elements may have a critical role in the resistance of cancer cells to cytotoxic effects induced by diverse chemotherapeutic drugs and cancer recurrence. Of therapeutic interest, new strategies for reversing the multidrug resistance and developing more effective clinical treatments against the highly aggressive, metastatic, and recurrent cancers, based on the molecular targeting of the cancer progenitor cells and their further differentiated progeny, are also described.     

转录因子7类似物2在胃癌中的表达及其与铂类药物耐药性的关系

目的研究转录因子7类似物2(TCF7L2)基因在胃癌中的表达情况及其与胃癌化疗耐药的关系。方法采用qRT-PCR方法检测15例胃癌及其癌旁组织中TCF7L2的mRNA量,western blot实验检测胃癌细胞株SGC-7901、HSC44、44AS3、N87、MKN45、MGC803与永生化正常胃黏膜上皮细胞GES-1中TCF7L2蛋白表达量。通过基因稳定转染技术构建高表达TCF7L2的SGC-7901/TCF7L2细胞株和SGC-7901/CON(对照组)细胞株,用细胞计数法分别检测两者对顺铂和卡铂的耐药情况。结果 TCF7L2在胃癌组织中的表达显著高于癌旁正常组织,在胃癌细胞株中的表达水平也明显高于对照细胞GES-1。高表达TCF7L2的SGC-7901/TCF7L2细胞株对顺铂与卡铂的耐受性明显强于对照细胞株。结论 TCF7L2基因表达与胃癌的发生发展有正相关关系;TCF7L2高表达可能是胃癌对铂类药物化疗耐受的原因之一。     

Livin gene plays a role in drug resistance of colon cancer cells

ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to investigate the effect of knockdown of Livin expression on reversing drug resistance phenotype of colon cancer HCT-8/V cells.Design and methodsSpecific short hairpin RNA (shRNA) was chosen and transfected in human colon cancer HCT-8/V cell line. Cell apoptosis and chemosensitivity were evaluated following downregulation of Livin expression.ResultsIn the current study, Livin was found to be highly expressed in the HCT-8/V colon cancer cells, which were resistant to several anti-tumor drugs. Knocking down of Livin expression in HCT-8/V cells by specific RNAi facilitated the apoptosis of HCT-8/V cells in response to vincristine (VCR), etoposide (VP-16), and 5-flourouracil (5-FU). Chemosensitivity assay confirmed the results and demonstrated the reversal of drug resistance phenotype of HCT-8/V cells.ConclusionThese data suggest that specific silencing of Livin gene expression could be a promising target for further research in clinical chemotherapy of colon cancer.     

反转录病毒介导靶向瞬时感受器电位M7基因siRNA抑制RBL-2H3细胞的活化

背景：钙离子在肥大细胞活化后的脱颗粒反应起重要作用。瞬时感受器电位M7（transient receptor potential melastatin7,TRPM7）是肥大细胞重要的候选通道。目的：构建携带大鼠靶向TRPM7-siRNA的反转录病毒载体并检测其对大鼠RBL-2H3细胞抗原活化的影响。方法：实验设计3个TRPM7-siRNA序列和1个无关对照序列,克隆到酶切的pSuper-retro-neo-GFP反转录病毒载体,用重组质粒pSuper-retro-neo-GFP-shTRPM7-（1,2,3）采用脂质体Lipofectamine 2000转染RBL-2H3细胞,采用Western blot检测干扰效率。筛选出最有效的pSuper-retro-neo-GFP-siTRMP7与包装质粒共转染293FT细胞生成反转录病毒并感染RBL-2H3细胞,荧光实时定量PCR及Western blot检测TRPM7-siRNA的沉默效果。检测β-氨基已糖苷酶活性探讨RBL-2H3细胞抗原活化程度的改变。结果与结论：转染后的各组细胞中siTRPM7-3转染组的沉默效率最高（P〈0.05）。pSuper-retro-neo-GFP-siTRMP7-3干扰组的TRPM7基因的mRNA水平和蛋白水平显著下调,致敏后其β-氨基已糖苷酶活性明显降低（P〈0.05）。结果提示,降低TRPM7基因的表达可抑制RBL-2H3细胞的抗原活化。     

Identification of compounds that inhibit growth of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine-resistant cancer cells

The dietary carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine (PhIP) is a heterocyclic amine and is a common byproduct of cooked meat and fish. Although most cells undergo apoptosis when exposed to this mutagen, subsets develop resistance. Rather than die, these resistant cells persist and accumulate mutations, thereby driving tumorigenesis of exposed organs within the gastrointestinal tract. By applying a high-throughput cell-based screen of 32,000 small molecules, we have identified a family of compounds that specifically inhibit the growth of PhIP-resistant cancer cells. These compounds may prove useful for the treatment or prevention of gastrointestinal tumors arising after exposure to PhIP and related carcinogens.     

The novel Bcl-2 inhibitor ABT-737 is more effective in hypoxia and is able to reverse hypoxia-induced drug resistance in neuroblastoma cells

Neuroblastoma is a common solid tumor of childhood and advanced disease carries a poor prognosis despite intensive multimodality therapy. Hypoxia is a common feature of solid tumors because of poorly organized tumor-induced neovasculature. Hypoxia is associated with advanced stage and poor outcome in a range of tumor types, and leads to resistance to clinically relevant cytotoxic agents in neuroblastoma and other pediatric tumors in vitro. Resistance to apoptosis is a common feature of tumor cells and leads to pleiotropic drug resistance, mediated by Bcl-2 family proteins. ABT-737 is a novel small-molecule inhibitor of Bcl-2 and Bcl-x(L) that is able to induce apoptosis in a range of tumor types. Neuroblastoma cell lines are relatively resistant to ABT-737-induced apoptosis in normoxia, but in contrast to the situation with conventional cytotoxic agents are more sensitive in hypoxia. This sensitization is because of an increase in ABT-737-induced apoptosis and is variably dependent upon the presence of functional hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) α. In contrast to the situation in colon carcinoma and non-small cell lung cancer cells, hypoxia does not result in downregulation of the known ABT-737 resistance factor, Mcl-1, nor any other Bcl-2 family proteins. ABT-737 sensitizes neuroblastoma cells to clinically relevant cytotoxic agents under normal levels of oxygen, and importantly, this sensitization is maintained under hypoxia when neuroblastoma cells are resistant to these agents. Thus rational combinations of ABT-737 and conventional cytotoxics offer a novel approach to overcoming hypoxia-induced drug resistance in neuroblastoma.     

miR-27a通过调控Sprouty2促进胰腺癌细胞PANC-1的生长

目的探讨miR-27a在胰腺癌细胞生长过程中的作用及相关机制。方法应用RT-PCR检测胰腺癌组织中miR-27a的表达水平;应用CCK-8生长曲线和软琼脂克隆形成实验检测miR-27a对胰腺癌细胞PANC-1生长能力的影响;应用双荧光素酶报告基因实验和Westernblot筛选miR-27a的靶基因。结果 (1)相比较于癌旁正常胰腺组织,胰腺癌组织中miR-27a表达显著上调;(2)抑制胰腺癌细胞PANC-1内源性miR-27a能够显著下调癌细胞的生长活性;(3)miR-27a能够直接调控Sprouty2基因3'UTR中的MRE序列;(4)抑制PANC-1细胞内源性miR-27a能够显著上调Sprouty2蛋白35%。结论 miR-27通过调控胰腺癌细胞PANC-1中Sprouty2蛋白表达发挥癌基因功能。     

Retracted Article: MiR-148a agomir based targeting of c-Met and Her-3 is able to attenuate EGFR-T790M mutation driven gefitinib and erlotinib resistance in non-small cell lung cancer cells

MiR-148a inhibits NSCLC progression. Whether miR-148a would reduce EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) resistance of NSCLC cells remains underexplored. In this study, 5 NSCLC patients received surgery and gefitinib treatment but developed pleural metastasis. Patients'' NSCLC adopted EGFR T790M mutation. 5 naïve and 5 gefitinib-resisting NSCLC cell lines were derived from patients primary and metastatic tumor tissues, and the 5 gefitinib-resisting NSCLC cell lines were trained with erlotinib to establish the erlotinib-resisting cell lines. MiR-148a levels in cells were analyzed by qRT-PCR. miR-148a overexpression was mimicked by agomir treatment. NSCLC cell malignancy was evaluated by cell proliferation, apoptosis, colony formation and transwell invasion assays. Protein levels of c-Met, Her-3 and IGF-1R were assessed by western blotting. miRNA-mRNA interaction was investigated by luciferase reporter assay and AGO2-RIP. Transient overexpression of MET, ERBB3 or IGF1R gene was achieved by plasmid transfection. Results showed that the MiR-148a level was decreased with the development of gefitinib and erlotinib resistance and that there was an increase in malignancy in NSCLC cells in vitro. Treatment with miR-148a agomir significantly enhanced the cytotoxicity of gefitinib and erlotinib to naïve, gefitinib-resisting and erlotinib-resisting NSCLC cells in vitro while reducing their protein levels of c-Met, Her-3 and IGF-1R, the mRNAs of which were verified as direct targets of miR-148a in NSCLC cells. Restoring c-Met or Her-3 protein levels partially reduced the gefitinib and erlotinib sensitizing effect of miR-148a agomir treatment on NSCLC cells. We concluded that MiR-148a attenuated gefitinib and erlotinib resistance in non-small cell lung cancer cells with EGFR T790M mutation by targeting c-Met and Her-3 expression.

MiR-148a inhibits NSCLC progression.     

The CRISPR-Cas9 system: a promising tool for discovering potential approaches to overcome drug resistance in cancer

The CRISPR-Cas system was identified in bacteria as an immune defense mechanism against threats from the external environment. A common form of this system, called CRISPR-Cas9, is now widely used in gene editing, especially in mammalian cells. Through CRISPR-Cas9, gene knock-ins or knock-outs have become more feasible, thus deepening our understanding of the mechanisms of human diseases, including cancers, and suggesting possible treatment strategies. In this review, we discuss how CRISPR-Cas9 can be used as a tool to discover more about drug-resistance in cancers, including both the underlying mechanisms and ways to overcome them.

The CRISPR-Cas system was identified in bacteria as an immune defense mechanism against threats from the external environment.     

Synthesis of controlled-size silver nanoparticles for the administration of methotrexate drug and its activity in colon and lung cancer cells

A controlled synthesis of methotrexate (MTX) silver nanoparticles (AgNPs-MTX) using borohydride and citrate as reduction and reduction/capping agents, respectively, was performed in order to obtain AgNPs-MTX conjugates with a narrow size distribution. Their characterization showed polydispersed spherical shape nanoparticles with a mean size around 13 nm and distribution range between 7–21 nm. The presence of MTX was confirmed by FTIR and EDX analysis. Spectroscopic determinations suggest the chemisorption of MTX through a carboxylic group (–COOH) onto AgNPs via the exchange with a citrate molecule. Drug loading capacities calculated for AgNPs synthesized using different amounts of MTX were 28, 31 and 40%. In vitro drug release tests depicted similar release profiles for all conjugated amounts releasing between 77 to 85% of the initial MTX loaded into the AgNPs. With respect to free MTX, the addition of the nanocarrier delayed its release and also changed its pharmacokinetics. Free MTX is released after 3 hours following a first order kinetic model, whereas in the presence of AgNPs, a fast initial release is observed during the first 5 hours, followed by a plateau after 24 hours. In this case, AgNPs-MTX fitted a Higuchi model, where its solubilization is controlled by a diffusion process. Results obtained from flow cytometry of different cell lines treated with AgNPs-MTX demonstrated the combined anticancer effect of both reagents, decreasing the percentage of living cells in a colon cancer cell line (HTC-116) down to 40% after 48 hours of exposure. This effect was weaker but still significant for a lung cancer cell line (A-549). Finally, a zebrafish assay with AgNPs-MTX did not show any significant cytotoxic effect, confirming thereby the reduction of systemic drug toxicity achieved by coupling MTX to AgNPs. This observed toxicity reduction in the zebrafish model implies also a probable improvement of the usage of AgNPs-MTX in chemotherapy against human cancers.

A controlled synthesis of methotrexate (MTX) silver nanoparticles (AgNPs-MTX) using borohydride and citrate as reduction and reduction/capping agents, respectively, was performed in order to obtain AgNPs-MTX conjugates with a narrow size distribution.     

Effects of novel phenoxazine compounds, 2-amino-4, 4a-dihydro-4alpha, 7-dimethyl-3H-phenoxazine-3-one and 3-amino-1, 4alpha-dihydro-4alpha, 8-dimethyl-2H-phenoxazine-2-one on proliferation of phytohemagglutinin- or anti-human IgM-activated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

We examined the in vitro effects of 2-amino-4, 4alpha-dihydro-4alpha, 7-dimethyl-3H-phenoxazine-3-one(Phx 1)and 3-amino-1, 4alpha-dihydro-4a, 8-dimethyl-2H-phenoxazine-2-one (Phx 2) on the proliferation of phytohemagglutinin (PHA)- or anti-human IgM-activated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Phx 1 and Phx 2 inhibited the incorporation of 3H-thymidine of PHA-activated PBMC by as much as 75% and 40%, respectively, at a concentration of 40 microM. The inhibition was dependent on the dose of Phx 1 and Phx 2. These results strongly suggest that Phx 1 and Phx 2 inhibit proliferation of T cells, because PHA specifically activates the T cells among PBMC. On the other hand, when PBMC were activated by anti-human IgM, which specifically stimulates B cells, the incorporation of 3H-thymidine was rather increased in the presence of 15.8 microM Phx 1 or Phx 2. However, at a higher concentration of Phx 1 or Phx 2 (50 microM), the incorporation of 3H-thymidine was increased by Phx 1, but was inhibited by Phx 2. These results suggest different effects of Phx 1 and Phx 2 on proliferation of human T and B cells.     

表皮生长因子受体靶向纳米载体荷载C-erbB2反义寡脱氧核苷酸对人乳腺癌SK-BR3细胞的摄取与滞留

背景:结合肿瘤的分子靶向技术和纳米技术,制备出一种新的具有靶向作用的纳米载体,以达到对肿瘤更好靶向作用的目的.目的:制备表皮生长因了偶联牛血清白蛋白纳米载体,联合核素标记的c-erbB2反义寡脱氧核苷酸,体外观察人乳腺癌SK-BR3细胞对其摄取情况.设计、时间及地点:对比观察实验,于2006-09/2008-03在重庆医科大学生物化学和分子生物学教研窀,重庆医科大学分子医学与肿瘤研究中心,重庆医科大学放射医学教研室完成.材料:生血清白蛋白(生物技术级)由美围Amresco公司提供,表皮生长因子由英国PeproTech EC LTD提供,125Ⅰ由成都中核高通同位素股份有限公司提供.寡脱氧核苷酸由上海生工生物工程技术服务有限公司提供.方法:采用超声乳化-化学交联及羧和反应制备表皮生长因子偶联白蛋白靶向纳米载体,通过核素标记示踪技术检测表皮生长因子偶联白蛋白靶向纳米载体的相关性质.主要观察指标:测量表皮生长因子靶向纳米载体荷载c-erbB2反义寡脱氧核苷酸的载药量、包封率及释药率,人乳腺癌SK-BR3细胞对表皮生长因子靶向纳米载体的摄取率及滞留率.结果:表皮生长因子靶向纳米载体包载125Ⅰ标记的反义寡脱氧核苷酸组的摄取率及滞留率高于正义寡脱氧核苷酸组和无义寡脱氧核昔酸组.同时c-erbB2寡脱氧核苷酸使用纳米载体荷载组的摄取率及滞留率均高于未使用纳米载体组,差异有显著性意义(P<0.05).结论:125Ⅰ标记的表皮生长因子靶向纳米载体能够提高乳腺癌SK-BR3细胞对o-erbB2反义寡脱氧核苷酸的摄取和滞留,能达到更好的靶向作用.     

Human breast cancer resistance protein: interactions with steroid drugs, hormones, the dietary carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine, and transport of cimetidine

The breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2) is an ATP-binding cassette drug efflux transporter that extrudes xenotoxins from cells, mediating drug resistance and affecting the pharmacological behavior of many compounds. To study the interaction of human wild-type BCRP with steroid drugs, hormones, and the dietary carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine (PhIP), we expressed human BCRP in the murine MEF3.8 fibroblast cell line, which lacks Mdr1a/1b P-glycoprotein and Mrp1, and in the polarized epithelial MDCKII cell line. We show that PhIP was efficiently transported by human BCRP in MDCKII-BCRP cells, as was found previously for murine Bcrp1. Furthermore, we show that six out of nine glucocorticoid drugs, corticosterone, and digoxin increased the accumulation of mitoxantrone in the MEF3.8-BCRP cell line, indicating inhibition of BCRP. In contrast, aldosterone and ursodeoxycholic acid had no significant effect on BCRP. The four most efficiently reversing glucocorticoid drugs (beclomethasone, 6alpha-methylprednisolone, dexamethasone, and triamcinolone) and 17beta-estradiol showed a significantly reduced BCRP-mediated transepithelial transport of PhIP by MDCKII-BCRP cells, with the highest reduction of PhIP transport ratio for beclomethasone (from 25.0 +/- 1.1 to 2.7 +/- 0.0). None of the tested endogenous steroids or synthetic glucocorticoids or digoxin, however, were transported substrates of BCRP. We also identified the H(2)-receptor antagonist drug cimetidine as a novel efficiently transported substrate for human BCRP and mouse Bcrp1. The generated BCRP-expressing cell lines thus provide valuable tools to study pharmacological and toxicological interactions mediated by BCRP and to identify new BCRP substrates.     

Four experimental stimulants found in sports and weight loss supplements: 2-amino-6-methylheptane (octodrine), 1,4-dimethylamylamine (1,4-DMAA), 1,3-dimethylamylamine (1,3-DMAA) and 1,3-dimethylbutylamine (1,3-DMBA)

Background: The United States Food and Drug Administration banned the stimulant 1,3-dimethylamylamine (1,3-DMAA) from dietary supplements and warned consumers that the stimulant can pose cardiovascular risks ranging from high blood pressure to heart attacks.

Objectives: We designed our study to determine if a new stimulant similar in structure to 1,3-DMAA has been introduced as an ingredient in supplements sold in the United States (US).

Methods: We analyzed six brands of supplements that listed an ingredient on the label (e.g., Aconitum kusnezoffii, DMHA or 2-amino-isoheptane) that might refer to an analog of 1,3-DMAA. Supplements were analyzed by two separate laboratories using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and reference standards.

Results: Two previously unidentified 1,3-DMAA analogs (2-amino-6-methylheptane [octodrine] and 1,4-dimethylamylamine [1,4-DMAA]) and two banned stimulants (1,3-DMAA and 1,3-dimethylbutylamine [1,3-DMBA]) were identified. Octodrine was found at a dose (±95% CI) of 72?±?7.5?mg per serving. In Europe, octodrine was previously sold as a pharmaceutical in multi-ingredient medications at dosages from 8 to 33?mg. The quantity of octodrine found in our study was more than twice the largest pharmaceutical dose. The other new stimulant, 1,4-DMAA, has not previously been approved for human consumption, and its safety in humans is unknown. 1,4-DMAA was found at dosages between 21?±?11?mg to 94?±?48?mg per serving. In addition, two banned stimulants – 1,3-DMAA and 1,3-DMBA – were also identified: 24?±?7.6?mg to 35?±?11?mg of 1,3-DMAA and 51?±?16?mg of 1,3-DMBA. In one product, 24?±?7.6?mg of 1,3-DMAA was combined with 21?±?11?mg of 1,4-DMAA. 1,3-DMAA has been investigated as potentially contributing to hemorrhagic strokes and sudden death, whereas the safety of 1,3-DMBA in humans is unknown.

Conclusion: Two banned stimulants (1,3-DMAA and 1,3-DMBA) and two previously unidentified stimulants (1,4-DMAA and octodrine) were identified in supplements sold in the United States.     

The exploration of the crystal nucleation parameters and physico-chemical analysis of a single crystal: 2-amino-4,6-dimethoxypyrimidinium hydrogen (2R,3R)-tartrate 2-amino-4,6-dimethoxypyrimidine

This paper discusses the structural orientations and the physico-chemical properties of a single crystal of 2-amino-4,6-dimethoxypyrimidinium hydrogen (2R,3R)-tartrate 2-amino-4,6-dimethoxypyrimidine (2ADT). The experimental investigation of the properties of the compound improves the potential for the utilization of the crystalline compound in the fabrication of optical limiting and nonlinear optical devices. For the growth process, an organic nonlinear optical crystal of 2ADT is synthesized conventionally at varying molar concentrations to achieve an excellent yield. The structural orientations and refinements of the compound are identified and discussed with reference to a single crystal X-ray diffraction study and its supporting computations. The results of the experimental analysis via UV-vis-NIR spectrometry and a z-scan setup with a laser beam source are used in an in-depth discussion on the linear and nonlinear optical properties of the crystal together with its damage threshold induced by a Nd:YAG laser beam at 1064 nm. With optical transparency of 55% in the entire visible region, a lower cut-off wavelength at 228 nm, and a bandgap at 5.2 eV, the crystal was demonstrated to be suitable for use in optical device fabrication. The thermogravimetrically assessed thermal stability of 2ADT was examined up to 147 °C. In addition, the thermodynamic parameters responsible for activation reactions are also discussed because these give information about the material''s thermal behavior. An optical limiting study revealed that the transmitted output power increases linearly with the input power at about 1.89 mW cm⁻².

This paper discusses the structural orientations and the physico-chemical properties of a single crystal of 2-amino-4,6-dimethoxypyrimidinium hydrogen (2R,3R)-tartrate 2-amino-4,6-dimethoxypyrimidine (2ADT).     

The relationship of nursing theory to practice and research within the British context: identifying a way forward

In this column, the author presents the current relationship of nursing theory to practice and research within the British context and suggests a way forward as suggested by Nightingale in order to guide future development.