Australian general practitioners' views and use of colorectal cancer screening tests

OBJECTIVES: To determine general practitioners' (GPs) current beliefs, knowledge and self-reported practices of screening for colorectal cancer. DESIGN AND SETTING: Postal survey of national random sample of 1271 GPs in 1996. OUTCOME MEASURES: GP views on effectiveness of faecal occult blood testing (FOBT) and flexible sigmoidoscopy in reducing premature death from colorectal cancer in "average-risk" patients (asymptomatic with no family history); views on frequency of tests and target group; use of these tests; and independent predictors of views and use. RESULTS: Response rate was 67%. FOBT and flexible sigmoidoscopy were said to be effective as screening tests by 38% and 61% of GPs, respectively, but 30% and 25% were unsure. Independent predictors of belief in screening effectiveness were State of practice (for FOBT), male sex and awareness of Gut Foundation guidelines (for flexible sigmoidoscopy) and increasing age (for both). Most often chosen screening frequencies were every year for FOBT (29%), and five-yearly for flexible sigmoidoscopy (24%), although 19% and 26%, respectively, were unsure of the appropriate screening interval. Most often cited target group was people aged over 40 years with first-degree relatives with colorectal cancer: 63% of GPs would offer FOBT and 74%, flexible sigmoidoscopy. Fewer than 3% of GPs were likely to adopt an opportunistic approach to screening, yet 15% would be highly likely to recommend FOBT during a dedicated health check-up for a 58-year-old male patient, and 9% for a female patient. CONCLUSION: The absence to date of a coherent national policy on colorectal cancer screening is associated with wide variations in views and practice that are inconsistent with the available evidence. If GPs are to be involved in implementing population screening, national policy must be widely and effectively promulgated.     

Screening for Chlamydia trachomatis at the time of routine Pap smear in general practice: a cluster randomised controlled trial

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether asking general practitioners to offer chlamydia screening at the same time as Pap screening increases chlamydia screening rates. DESIGN: A pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Doctors from 31 general practices in the Australian Capital Territory performing more than 15 Pap smear screens per year, and all women aged 16-39 years attending those practitioners between 1 November 2004 and 31 October 2005. INTERVENTION: Doctors in the intervention practices were asked to routinely offer combined chlamydia and Pap screening to eligible women; doctors in the control practices were asked to implement screening guidelines based on a risk assessment of the individual patient (ie, usual practice). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Chlamydia screening rate per visit. RESULTS: There were 26 876 visits by eligible women during the study period: 16 082 to intervention practices and 10 794 to control practices. Chlamydia screening occurred during 6.9% (95% CI, 6.5%-7.3%) of visits to intervention practices and 4.5% (95% CI, 4.1%-4.9%) of visits to control practices. After controlling for clustering and potential confounders, there were twofold greater odds of chlamydia screening occurring during a visit by an eligible woman to an intervention practice than to a control practice (adjusted odds ratio, 2.1 [95% CI, 1.3-3.4]). CONCLUSION: Combining chlamydia and Pap screening increases the rate of chlamydia screening in general practice. Implementing this approach would require little additional infrastructure support in settings where a cervical screening program already exists.     

Lipid lowering and coronary heart disease risk: how appropriate are the national guidelines?

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of current Australian guidelines for prescribing lipid-lowering drugs in identifying high-risk individuals in primary prevention of coronary heart disease. DESIGN AND SETTING: Coronary heart disease risk profiles were obtained for 280 consecutive patients dispensed lipid-lowering drugs in rural Victoria. Their 10-year absolute risk of coronary heart disease was determined using the Framingham formula. Patients were categorised according to their eligibility for lipid-lowering drugs as defined by current Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) and National Heart Foundation (NHF) guidelines. Patients: Complete data were available for 230 patients dispensed lipid-lowering drugs. Of these, the 138 patients (60%) with no history of vascular disease are the subjects of our study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Proportion of patients with various 10-year coronary heart disease thresholds (15%, 20% and 30%), compared with their eligibility for lipid-lowering drugs based on Australian PBS and NHF guidelines. RESULTS: Twenty-six per cent of patients with no history of vascular disease who are currently dispensed lipid-lowering drugs do not fulfil PBS guidelines for treatment. Of patients conforming with PBS guidelines as suitable for lipid-lowering drugs, 39% (95% CI, 30%-49%) had a 10-year risk of coronary heart disease of less than 15%. A similar proportion (41% [95% CI, 32%-50%]) had a 10-year risk of coronary heart disease of less than 15%, but were eligible for lipid-lowering drugs according to NHF guidelines. Adherence to PBS and NHF guidelines in patients currently dispensed lipid-lowering drugs would result in as many as 14% (95% CI, 8%-21%) and 7% (95% CI, 3%-12%) of patients, respectively, not being eligible for treatment, despite having a 10-year risk of coronary heart disease greater than 15%. CONCLUSIONS: Australian guidelines for prescribing of lipid-lowering drugs are poor discriminators of absolute risk of coronary heart disease in primary prevention. Strategies based on the continuous relationship between risk-factor intensity and absolute coronary heart disease risk, such as the Framingham risk estimates, provide a more rational basis for formulating treatment guidelines.     

Occupational stress: a survey of management in general practice

OBJECTIVES: To identify approaches to and barriers associated with the management of patients with work-related stress by general practitioners (GPs). DESIGN: Cross-sectional postal survey using a self-administered questionnaire which included a case vignette of a patient with work-related stress and questions ascertaining perceived barriers to the effective general practice management of work-related stress. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: 450 Western Australian GPs on the mailing list of a GP journal. The survey was conducted between 22 March and 28 April 2000. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Likelihood that GPs would (i) choose to open a workers compensation claim and (ii) provide time off work for the patient described in the vignette. RESULTS: Response rate was 50.1%. Eighty-five percent (95% CI, 79.6%-19.7%) of respondents advised the hypothetical patient to take time away from work; however, only 44.0% (95% CI, 37.2%-50.7%) chose to initiate a workers compensation claim. GPs with training or experience in occupational health were less likely to advise the patient to stay away from work (odds ratio [OR], 0.30; 95% CI, 0.12-0.73), but were just as likely to initiate a claim. GPs were reluctant to involve the employer in management decisions, because of concern about patient confidentiality and the potential to make matters worse for the patient. These, and the adversarial nature of the workers compensation system, were the strongest perceived barriers to effective management of the condition. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that general practitioners take a pragmatic and varied approach to the management of work-related stress. The perceived difficulties with contacting employers challenges the principles of injury management within a workers compensation system which is dependent on liaison between system stakeholders.     

Flexible sigmoidoscopy screening for colorectal neoplasia in average-risk people: evaluation of a five-year rescreening interval

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of colorectal neoplasia detected by rescreening people with average risk five years after initial screening by flexible sigmoidoscopy. DESIGN: Prospective survey of results of a colorectal cancer screening program. PARTICIPANTS: People aged 55-64 years with no symptoms or family history of colorectal cancer who were recruited from the community for flexible sigmoidoscopy screening five years previously (July 1995 to December 1996) and had no colorectal neoplasms detected. SETTING: Fremantle Hospital, Western Australia, a community-based teaching hospital, December 2000 to June 2001. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number and size of colorectal neoplasms (adenomas or cancer) compared between rescreened patients and initial screening population (all 982 people screened between July 1995 and December 1996). RESULTS: 803 people were eligible for rescreening; 138 were no longer at the recorded address, and 361 of the remaining 665 (54%) were rescreened. Rescreening found a significantly lower prevalence of colorectal adenomas than initial screening (8% [95% CI, 5%-11%] versus 14% [95% CI, 13%-15%]; P < 0.05) and also a lower percentage of adenomatous polyps over 5 mm in diameter (32% [95% CI, 15%-49%] versus 51% [95% CI, 46%-56%]; no significant difference). CONCLUSION: Average-risk people who have been screened for colorectal neoplasms, with none found, have a low prevalence of neoplastic lesions five years later. Longer rescreening intervals need to be considered.     

Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer disease in 2 communities: Yoruba residing in Ibadan, Nigeria, and African Americans residing in Indianapolis, Indiana

CONTEXT: Alzheimer disease (AD) represents a major and increasing public health problem. If populations were identified with significantly lower or higher incidence rates of AD, the search for risk factors in the genesis of AD could be greatly enhanced. OBJECTIVE: To compare incidence rates of dementia and AD in 2 diverse, elderly community-dwelling populations. DESIGN: The Indianapolis-Ibadan Dementia Project, a longitudinal, prospective population-based study consisting of a baseline survey (1992-1993) and 2 subsequent follow-up waves after 2 years (1994-1995) and 5 years (1997-1998). Each wave followed a 2-stage design, with an in-home screening interview followed by a full diagnostic workup of a subsample of participants based on screening performance. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A total of 2459 community-dwelling Yoruba residents of Ibadan, Nigeria, without dementia, and 2147 community-dwelling African American residents of Indianapolis, Ind, without dementia (all aged 65 years or older). The cohorts were followed up for a mean of 5.1 years and 4.7 years, respectively. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incident cases of dementia and AD in each of the 2 populations. RESULTS: The age-standardized annual incidence rates were significantly lower among Yoruba than among African Americans for dementia (Yoruba, 1.35% [95% confidence interval [CI], 1.13%-1.56%]; African Americans, 3.24% [95% CI, 2.11%-4.38%]) and for AD (Yoruba, 1.15% [95% CI, 0.96%-1.35%]; African Americans, 2.52% [95% CI, 1.40%-3.64%]). CONCLUSION: This is the first report of incidence rate differences for dementia and AD in studies of 2 populations from nonindustrialized and industrialized countries using identical methods and the same group of investigators in both sites. Further explorations of these population differences may identify potentially modifiable environmental or genetic factors to account for site differences in dementia and AD.     

Asthma screening as part of a routine school health assessment in the Australian Capital Territory

OBJECTIVE: To determine the feasibility and performance of a routine screen for childhood asthma in new entrants to primary school relative to diagnosis by a paediatrician. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study with a validation substudy. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: All 4539 new primary school entrants (mean age, 5.72 years; 95% CI, 5.71-5.74) in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1999; 180 of these children (73% of the 248 contacted) participated in the validation substudy. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Performance of the screening test relative to a paediatrician's diagnosis of current asthma (defined as a history of wheeze suggestive of a clinical diagnosis of asthma within the past 12 months) based on history and examination. RESULTS: 3748 of the 4539 new primary school entrants (83%) returned completed asthma and respiratory questions. The screening test was positive in 38% of children. Estimated sensitivity was 92% (95% CI, 75%-99%); specificity, 76% (95% CI, 72%-80%); positive predictive value, 51% (95% CI, 41%-63%); negative predictive value, 98% (95% CI, 90%-100%); positive likelihood ratio, 3.8 (95% CI, 2.8-4.8); and negative likelihood ratio, 0.14 (95% CI, 0.02-0.33). CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to conduct population screens for asthma that have good diagnostic test performance against a specialist paediatrician's diagnosis through school health programs. This approach could facilitate monitoring changes in asthma prevalence over time.     

Evaluation of decision rules for referring women for bone densitometry by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry.

CONTEXT: Identification of women with low bone mineral density (BMD) is an important strategy in reducing the incidence of osteoporotic fractures. However, screening all women is not recommended. OBJECTIVES: To assess the diagnostic properties of 4 decision rules--Simple Calculated Osteoporosis Risk Estimation (SCORE), Osteoporosis Risk Assessment Instrument (ORAI), Age, Body Size, No Estrogen (ABONE), and body weight less than 70 kg (weight criterion)--for selecting women for dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) testing and to compare results with recommendations made in the National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF) practice guidelines. DESIGN AND SETTING: Analysis of data from the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study, a population-based community sample, collected from 9 study centers across Canada between February 1996 and September 1997. PARTICIPANTS: Postmenopausal women aged 45 years or older (N = 2365) without bone disease who had DXA data for the femoral neck, data to apply selection criteria, and who were not currently taking estrogens or who had been taking hormone replacement therapy for 5 or more years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve of each of the 4 decision rules and the NOF guidelines for identifying women with a BMD T score of less than -1.0 SD, less than -2.0 SD, and no more than -2.5 SD at the femoral neck, and percentages of women recommended for testing, stratified by BMD level and age. RESULTS: The percent of women with a BMD T score less than -1, less than -2, and no more than -2.5 were 68.3%, 25.4%, and 10.0%, respectively. The AUROC curves were greatest using SCORE and ORAI. The sensitivity for identifying women with a BMD T score of less than -2.0 was 93.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 91.8%-95.6%) using the NOF guidelines and was 97.5% (95% CI, 96.3%-98.8%), 94.2% (95% CI, 92.3%-96.1%), 79.1% (95% CI, 75.9%-82.3%), and 79.6% (95% CI, 76.4%-82.8%), respectively, using the SCORE, ORAI, ABONE, and weight criterion. However, the NOF guidelines also resulted in 74.4% (95% CI, 71.3%-77.6%) of women with a normal BMD (T score of -1.0 or higher) being tested compared with 69.2% (95% CI, 65.9%-72.5%), 56.3% (95% CI, 52.7%-59.8%), 35.8% (95% CI, 32.4%-39.2%), and 38.1% (95% CI, 34.6%-41.6%), respectively, using the 4 decision rules. Assessments suggest that ABONE and weight criterion are not useful case-finding approaches. CONCLUSION: The SCORE and ORAI decision rules are better than the NOF guidelines at targeting BMD testing in high-risk patients. The acceptability of these rules in clinical practice merits further investigation given their potential effect on the use of densitometry services.     

Colonoscopy screening for colorectal cancer: the outcomes of two recruitment methods

OBJECTIVES: To determine the response to colorectal cancer (CRC) screening by colonoscopy, through direct invitation or through invitation by general practitioners. DESIGN AND SETTING: Two-way comparison of randomised population sampling versus cluster sampling of a representative general practice population in the Australian Capital Territory, May 2002 to January 2004. INTERVENTION: Invitation to screen, assessment for eligibility, interview, and colonoscopy. SUBJECTS: 881 subjects aged 55-74 years were invited to screen: 520 from the electoral roll (ER) sample and 361 from the general practice (GP) cluster sample. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Response rate, participation rate, and rate of adenomatous polyps in the screened group. RESULTS: Participation was similar in the ER arm (35.1%; 95% CI, 30.2%-40.3%) and the GP arm (40.1%; 95% CI, 29.2%-51.0%) after correcting for ineligibility, which was higher in the ER arm. Superior eligibility in the GP arm was offset by the labour of manual record review. Response rates after two invitations were similar for the two groups (ER arm: 78.8%; 95% CI, 75.1%-82.1%; GP arm: 81.7%; 95% CI, 73.8%-89.6%). Overall, 53.4% ineligibility arose from having a colonoscopy in the past 10 years (ER arm, 98/178; GP arm, 42/84). Of 231 colonoscopies performed, 229 were complete, with 32% of subjects screened having adenomatous polyps. CONCLUSIONS: Colonoscopy-based CRC screening yields similar response and participation rates with either random population sampling or general practice cluster sampling, with population sampling through the electoral roll providing greater ease of recruitment.     

A case for more year-long internships outside metropolitan areas?

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether medical graduates who spent their intern year at a non-metropolitan hospital were more likely to practise outside metropolitan areas on completion of training than were interns in metropolitan hospitals. DESIGN: Retrospective follow-up of doctors who held year-long internships at a non-metropolitan hospital and interns from metropolitan hospitals. SETTING: Ballarat Base Hospital (BBH) (Rural, Remote and Metropolitan Area [RRMA] rural zone) and hospitals in Melbourne and Geelong (RRMA metropolitan zone). PARTICIPANTS: 57/63 (90%) Victorian medical graduates completing internships at BBH between 1989 and 1997 and 126/126 (100%) sex-matched metropolitan interns, chosen at random. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Practice location in 2002. RESULTS: More BBH interns were practising as GPs outside metropolitan areas (44%) than metropolitan interns (13%) (difference, 31%; 95% CI, 17%-45%). The proportion of interns in specialist practice outside metropolitan areas was small for both groups - zero and 3%, respectively (difference, - 3%; 95% CI, - 6% to 0). None of the specialist training posts held by interns were outside metropolitan areas. Of BBH interns entering general practice, 41% (95% CI, 24%-58%) did so in the local health region. CONCLUSIONS: Regional interns are a good source of non-metropolitan GPs, especially locally. Prospective studies to determine the precise influence of regional internships on eventual practice location, and whether more such posts would lead to more graduates entering non-metropolitan practice, would be worthwhile.     

A comparison of general practice encounters with patients from English-speaking and non-English-speaking backgrounds

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether doctor-patient encounters in general practice with patients from a non-English-speaking background (NESB) differ from encounters with patients of English-speaking background (ESB) in terms of the type of practice where the encounters occur and the type of problems managed. DESIGN AND SETTING: A national cross-sectional survey of GP-patient encounters from a sample of all active registered GPs in Australia. PARTICIPANTS: A random sample of 1047 GPs recruited in the 12 months from April 1999 to March 2000, each providing details of 100 consecutive patient encounters. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: GP demographics, practice characteristics, patient demographics (including whether the patient mainly spoke a language other than English at home), and problems managed at the encounter. RESULTS: After adjusting for significant predictors, encounters with NESB patients were significantly more likely to occur at solo practices than practices of five or more GPs (odds ratio [OR], 2.15; 95% CI, 1.49-3.09), in metropolitan practices (OR, 6.34; 95% CI, 4.04-9.96), and with GPs who mostly consulted in a language other than English (OR, 5.44; 95% CI, 3.78-7.83). NESB encounters were relatively more likely to involve a respiratory problem (OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.04-1.26), endocrine/metabolic problem (OR, 1.41; 95% CI, 1.22-1.63) or digestive problem (OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.02-1.27), and relatively less likely to involve a psychological problem (OR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.61-0.88) or social problem (OR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.49-0.92). CONCLUSION: Differences in morbidity management rates between encounters with NESB patients and ESB patients may reflect both differences in underlying prevalences of some disorders in the population of general practice patients, as well as different reasons among the two groups for attending general practice.     

Changes in beliefs about cancer in Western Australia, 1964-2001

OBJECTIVE: To assess changes in people's knowledge and beliefs about cancer between 1964 and 2001. DESIGN: Questions in a 1964 survey of beliefs about cancer (randomly selected households) were replicated in a 2001 telephone survey (random-digit dialing). SETTING: Perth, Western Australia. PARTICIPANTS: 984 and 491 participants aged 20 years or older in the 1964 and 2001 surveys, respectively (response rates, 86.8% and 47.0%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Changes in knowledge and beliefs about cancer. RESULTS: Between 1964 and 2001, there were major improvements in knowledge about the causes of cancer, with several myths dispelled. In 1964, the proportion of Perth residents surveyed who believed that cancer is contagious was 20% (95% CI, 18%-22%), compared with 3% (95% CI, 2%-4%) in 2001. Similarly, the proportion who believed cancer is caused by "a knock" was 25% (95% CI, 22%-28%) in 1964, compared with 1% (95% CI, 0-2%) in 2001. Cancer screening participation rates also greatly improved, from 18% (95% CI, 16%-20%) in 1964 to 77% (95% CI, 73%-81%) in 2001. Changes in participants' sources of knowledge about cancer were also evident, with family members and television increasing markedly as sources of information. CONCLUSIONS: Improved education of the public in health matters over the past four decades appears to have had a major and positive impact on knowledge about cancer.     

Automated attention flags in chronic disease care planning

OBJECTIVES: To assess the value of computerised decision support in the management of chronic respiratory disease by comparing agreement between three respiratory specialists, general practitioners (care coordinators), and decision support software. METHODS: Care guidelines for two chronic obstructive pulmonary disease projects of the SA HealthPlus Coordinated Care Trial were formulated. Decision support software, Care Plan On-Line (CPOL), was created to represent the intent of these guidelines via automated attention flags to appear in patients' electronic medical records. For a random sample of 20 patients with care plans, decisions about the use of nine additional services (eg, smoking cessation, pneumococcal vaccination) were compared between the respiratory specialists, the patients' GPs and the CPOL attention flags. RESULTS: Agreement among the specialists was at the lower end of moderate (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC], 0.48; 95% CI, 0.39-0.56), with a 20% rate of contradictory decisions. Agreement with recommendations of specialists was moderate to poor for GPs (kappa, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.33-0.66) and moderate to good for CPOL (kappa, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.55-0.90). CPOL agreement with GPs was moderate to poor (kappa, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.24-0.58). GPs were less likely than specialists or CPOL to decide in favour of an additional service (P<0.001). CPOL was 87% accurate as an indicator of specialist decisions. It gave a 16% false-positive rate according to specialist decisions, and flagged 61% of decisions where GPs said No and specialists said Yes. CONCLUSIONS: Automated decision support may provide GPs with improved access to the intent of guidelines; however, further investigation is required.     

Effect of statins on risk of coronary disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

CONTEXT: Lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) is known to reduce risk of recurrent coronary heart disease in middle-aged men. However, this effect has been uncertain in elderly people and women. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the risk reduction of coronary heart disease and total mortality associated with statin drug treatment, particularly in elderly individuals and women. DATA SOURCES: Trials published in English-language journals were retrieved by searching MEDLINE (1966-December 1998), bibliographies, and authors' reference files. STUDY SELECTION: Studies in which participants were randomized to statin or control treatment for at least 4 years and clinical disease or death was the primary outcome were included in the meta-analysis (5 of 182 initially identified). DATA EXTRACTION: Information on sample size, study drug duration, type and dosage of statin drug, participant characteristics at baseline, reduction in lipids during intervention, and outcomes was abstracted independently by 2 authors (J.H. and S.V.) using a standardized protocol. Disagreements were resolved by consensus. DATA SYNTHESIS: Data from the 5 trials, with 30 817 participants, were included in this meta-analysis. The mean duration of treatment was 5.4 years. Stati n drug treatment was associated with a20% reduction in total cholesterol, 28% reduction in LDL-C, 13% reduction in triglycerides, and 5% increase in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Overall, statin drug treatment reduced risk 31 % in major coronary events (95% confidence interval [CI], 26%-36%) and 21 % in all-cause mortality (95% CI, 14%-28%). The risk reduction in major coronary events was similar between women (29%; 95% Cl, 13 %-42 %) and men (31 %; 95% CI, 26%-35%), and between persons aged at least 65 years (32%; 95% CI, 23%-39%) and persons younger than 65 years (31 %; 95% CI, 24%-36%). CONCLUSIONS: Our meta-analysis indicates that reduction in LDL-C associated with statin drug treatment decreases the risk of coronary heart disease and all-cause mortality. The risk reduction was similar for men and women and for elderly and middle-aged persons.     

Prostate-specific antigen testing in Ontario: reasons for testing patients without diagnosed prostate cancer

BACKGROUND: The use of the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test has been increasing rapidly in Canada since its introduction in 1988. The reasons for using the PSA test in patients without known prostate cancer are unclear. This paper reports on the first study in Canada to use physician records to assess the use of PSA testing. METHODS: A questionnaire was mailed to physicians attending 475 patients without diagnosed prostate cancer. The patients were randomly selected from 2 laboratory databases of PSA test records in the greater Toronto area during 1995. The physicians were asked to consult their patient records to avoid recall bias. Information obtained included physician's specialty, patient's age at time of PSA test and reason(s) for the test. RESULTS: There were 264 responses (56%), of which 240 (91%) were usable. Of these 240, 63% (95% confidence interval [Cl] 58%-70%) indicated that the test was conducted to screen for prostate cancer, 40% (95% Cl 34%-47%) said it was to investigate urinary symptoms, and 33% (95% Cl 27%-40%) responded that it was a follow-up to a medical procedure or drug therapy. More than one reason was permitted. Of 151 responses indicating screening as one reason for testing, 64% (95% Cl 56%-72%) stated that it was initiated by the patient, and 73% (95% Cl 65%-80%) stated that it was part of a routine examination. For 19%, both investigation of symptoms and screening asymptomatic patients were given as reasons for testing, and for another 19% both follow-up of a medical procedure and screening were given as reasons. Screening was recorded as a reason for testing far more commonly for patients seen by family physicians and general practitioners than for patients seen by urologists (67% v. 29%, p < 0.001). In contrast, the use of PSA testing to diagnose urinary symptoms was more common for patients seen by urologists than for those seen by family physicians and general practitioners (52% v. 37%, p = 0.044). No significant difference was found between physician groups in the use of PSA testing as a follow-up of a medical procedure (42% for urologists and 31% for family physicians and general practitioners). About 24% of the PSA test records were for patients younger than 50 and older than 70 years. PSA testing initiated by patients was more common in the practices of family physicians and general practitioners than in the practices of urologists (44% v. 13%, p < 0.001). INTERPRETATION: Screening for prostate cancer was the most common reason for PSA testing in our study group; it occurred most commonly in the family and general practice setting and was usually initiated by the patient. Differences in reasons for testing were identified by practice specialty. Although PSA screening for prostate cancer is sometimes recommended for men between 50 and 70 years of age, it is being conducted in men outside this age group.     

Detecting and reducing hospital adverse events: outcomes of the Wimmera clinical risk management program

OBJECTIVES: To determine if an integrated clinical risk management program that detects adverse patient events in a hospital, analyses their risk and takes action can alter the rate of adverse events. DESIGN: Longitudinal survey of adverse patient events over eight years of progressive implementation of the risk management program. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: 49,834 inpatients (July 1991 to September 1999) and 20,050 emergency department patients (October 1997 to September 1999) at a rural base hospital in the Wimmera region of Victoria. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rates of adverse events detected by medical record review and clinical incident and general practitioner reporting. RESULTS: The annual rate of inpatient adverse events decreased between the first and eighth years of the study from 1.35% of all patient discharges (69 events) to 0.74% (49 events) (P<0.001). Absolute risk reduction was 0.61% (95% CI, 0.23%-0.99%), and relative risk reduction was 44.9% (95% CI, 16.9%-72.9%). The quarterly rate of emergency department adverse events decreased between the first and eighth quarters of monitoring from 3.26% of all attendances (84 events) to 0.48% (12 events) (P< 0.001). Absolute risk reduction was 2.78% (95% CI, 2.04%-3.52%), and relative risk reduction was 85.3% (95% CI, 62.7%-100%). CONCLUSIONS: Adverse patient events can be detected, and their frequency reduced, using multiple detection methods and clinical improvement strategies as part of an integrated clinical risk management program.     

A population-based study of school scoliosis screening.

CONTEXT: Although school-based screening programs for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis are mandated in 26 states in the United States, few program outcomes data exist regarding the effectiveness of such programs. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of a community-based school scoliosis screening program. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Retrospective cohort study of children who attended kindergarten or first grade at public or private schools in Rochester, Minn, during 1979-1982. Children were followed up until age 19 years or until they left the school district. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of children diagnosed and treated for scoliosis, based on results from scoliosis screenings performed annually in grades 5 through 9, linked to community medical records data; performance characteristics of the screening program. RESULTS: Of the 2242 children screened, 92 (4.1 %) were referred for further evaluation. Of these, 68 (74%) had documented medical or chiropractic evaluation of scoliosis. School screening identified 5 of the 9 children treated for scoliosis but resulted in referrals for another 87 children who were not treated. The cumulative incidence of diagnosed scoliosis in this population was 1.8% (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2%-2.3%) for curves of more than 10 degrees, 1.0% (95% CI, 0.6%-1.5%) for curves of at least 20 degrees, and 0.4% (95% CI, 0.1 %-0.6%) for curves of 40 degrees or more; 0.4% (0.5% of girls and 0.3% of boys) were treated for scoliosis. The positive predictive value of the school screening program for the identification of treated scoliosis was 0.05 (95% CI, 0.048-0.052), with 448 children needed to screen to identify 1 child who subsequently received treatment. The percent positive agreement across consecutive years of screening varied from 7% to 30%. CONCLUSION: In this population, school scoliosis screening identified some children who went on to receive treatment but referred many more who did not. These data should be considered in making decisions regarding school scoliosis screening.     

Untreated hypertension among Australian adults: the 1999-2000 Australian Diabetes,Obesity and Lifestyle Study (AusDiab)

OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of untreated hypertension in Australian adults, and examine the associations with clinical and lifestyle factors. DESIGN: AusDiab, a cross-sectional survey conducted between May 1999 and December 2000, involved participants from 42 randomly selected census districts throughout Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Of 20 347 eligible people aged >or= 25 years who completed a household interview, 11 247 attended a physical examination (response rate, 55%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The prevalence of hypertension (blood pressure >or= 140/90 mmHg or self-reported use of antihypertensive drugs) and its treatment; associations of clinical and lifestyle factors with the treatment of hypertension; and adequacy of treatment for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. RESULTS: The prevalence of hypertension was 28.6 per 100 (95% CI, 25.0-32.3), and the prevalence of untreated hypertension was 15.2 per 100 (95% CI, 13.2-17.2). Of those with untreated hypertension, 80.8% (95% CI, 74.7%-85.0%) had had a blood pressure check within the preceding 12 months. At least one modifiable lifestyle factor was present in 71.7% (95% CI, 68.5%-74.8%) of participants with untreated hypertension. Although lower risk clinical characteristics of younger age and lack of hyperlipidaemia were independently associated with untreated hypertension, 53.5% warranted treatment based on current cardiovascular disease prevention guidelines and multivariable absolute risk assessment. CONCLUSIONS: Considerable scope remains for reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease through lifestyle modification and rational treatment of hypertension.     

北京市颗粒物污染对慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重住院的影响

目的：研究北京市颗粒物污染对慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重（acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,AECOPD）的影响,并分析颗粒物污染对不同特征人群的影响差异。方法：从国家卫生与计划生育委员会医疗管理服务指导中心获取北京市2014年至2015年三甲医院AECOPD患者的住院资料,从中国空气质量监测平台获取同期大气污染资料,从中国气象局获取同期气象资料。采用广义相加Poisson回归模型,在控制长期趋势、周效应、节假日效应、气象条件等混杂因素后,评估PM2.5、PM10对AECOPD住院人次的影响。根据患者不同特征（性别、年龄）进行亚组分析,确定颗粒物污染的高危人群。结果：纳入15家医院,共7 884例住院患者,男女比例2.3 ∶1,65~79岁患者最多（45.5%）、≥80岁（37.1%）次之、<65岁（17.4%）最少。PM2.5、PM10日均浓度分别为（77.1±66.6） μg/m3、（111.9±75.8） μg/m3,两者均在移动平均滞后4 d时对AECOPD的影响最大,即PM2.5日均浓度每增加10 μg/m3,AECOPD住院人次增加0.53%（95%CI：0.01%~1.06%,P=0.0478）, PM10日均浓度每增加10 μg/m3,AECOPD住院人次增加0.53%（95%CI：0.07%~1.00%,P=0.025 0）。亚组分析结果显示,PM2.5、PM10日均浓度每增加10 μg/m3,女性患者住院人次分别增加1.13%（95%CI：0.19%~2.07%,P=0.018 3）、1.06%（95%CI：0.22%~1.91%,P=0.013 6）;≥80岁患者住院人次分别增加1.25%（95%CI：0.40%~2.11%,P=0.004 0）、1.18%（95%CI：0.42%~1.95%,P=0.002 4）;而男性、<65岁、65~79岁患者中,PM2.5、PM10与AECOPD的关联无统计学意义。由此可见,女性、≥80岁患者对颗粒物污染更敏感。结论：颗粒物污染会增加AECOPD住院风险,且女性、年老者风险更高。