Role of the perforating vein in vascular pedicle of free forearm flap

An innovation in the preparation of the vascular pedicle of the free radial forearm flap is presented. While the radial artery is commonly used as the arterial pedicle of the flap, either the cutaneous venous system or the radial comitant vein (deep venous system) is used as the venous pedicle. The perforating vein communicates between these two venous systems at the cubital fossa, and we confirmed its presence in all but one of more than 180 cases. When the vascular pedicle is dissected proximally to the perforating vein contained in the flap, the venous drainage of both the deep and cutaneous systems can be restored by anastomosis of only one vein: the cutanous or the radial comitant vein. On the other hand, the flap can be raised with the radial vessels (without the cutaneous vein) at the start of surgery, and a large caliber cutaneous vein, such as the median cubital, the cephalic, or the basilic, can be used for anastomosis in cases where the cutaneous veins in the distal forearm are too thin, or where the radial comitant vein is composed of two thin separated veins. We believe that preserving the perforating vein would make the forearm flap more reliable and more convenient in reconstructive surgery. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Distally based anterolateral thigh flap: an underutilized option for peri-patellar wound coverage

Wound coverage in the supra-patellar area presents a significant challenge for orthopaedic and reconstructive surgeons due to the need for preservation of knee joint function but the paucity of regional soft tissue flaps available. While many orthopaedic and reconstructive surgeons make use of the rotational gastrocnemius flap for coverage of peri-patellar defects, this flap has certain limitations. The goal of this study was to report a single-centre experience with the use of the distally based anterolateral thigh flap (ALT) and review the current literature on the use of the ALT for peri-patellar defects. In this report, both a single-centre experience using distally based anterolateral thigh (ALT) island flaps for supra-patellar wound coverage and the existing literature on this topic were reviewed. A systematic literature review was performed to assess the use of the ALT for peri-patellar wounds. Five patients with a mean age of 69 underwent a distally based ALT flap for coverage of peri-patellar defects. Four out of 5 flaps survived at the end of their respective follow-up. Based on this combined experience, the distally based reverse-flow anterolateral thigh island flap represents a useful but relatively underutilized option for appropriately selected supra-patellar wounds due to minimal donor site morbidity, multiple flap components, and predictable pedicle anatomy. The flap’s major weakness is its potentially unreliable venous drainage, requiring delay or secondary venous outflow anastomosis. Given the ALT flap’s favourable profile, the authors recommend consideration for its use when managing a peri-patellar coverage wound issue.     

The dorsoradial flap: a new flap for hand reconstruction. Anatomical study and clinical applications

The authors report a new cutaneous flap harvested from the dorsal and distal quarter of the forearm: the dorsoradial flap. The vascularisation type of the cutaneous paddle belongs this flap to the anterograde and axial family flaps. The anatomical study carried out on thirty six fresh cadaver upper arms showed a constant and a consistent cutaneous collateral branch of the radial artery which arises at the apex of the first intermetacarpal space. Two anatomical types were recorded according to the origin of the dorsoradial artery: type I (84% of cases), the vessel arises directly from the radial artery; type II (16% of cases), it arises from a common trunk with the first dorsal intermetacarpal artery. Those anatomical findings does not influence the flap operative technique, the flap design and the location of the pedicle pivot point. The dorsoradial artery emerges vertically from the apex of the first intermetacarpal space, crosses the angle between the extensor pollicis longus tendon laterally and the extensor carpi radialis longus tendon medially and turns proximally towards the distal radio-ulnar joint. Over the dorsal aspect of the wrist, the dorsoradial artery enters the subcutaneous tissue, runs parallel to the extensor pollicis longus tendon at three millimeters in a medial position, passes over the medial collateral branch of the superficial radial nerve and irrigates all the distal and dorsal quarter of the forearm. The artery is consistently accompanied by two comitantes veins, which assume the venous drainage of the cutaneous territory. The flap paddle is designed over the distal dorsal forearm quarter, between the dorsal crease of the wrist distally, the ulnar crest medially and the radial crest laterally. All this skin territory can be harvested and supplied by the dorsoradial pedicle, but we always should deal with the needs of the defects reconstruction and the morbidity of the donor site. The vascular pedicle is outlined between the distal radio-ulnar joint and the apex of the first intermetacarpal space with a minimum of one centimeter width. The surgical procedure is carried out under a tourniquet without an upper arm exsanguination. The skin is firstly dissected over the vascular pedicle through an S shape incision; it is lifted on the dermo-hypodermis plan preserving all the superficial venous network with the pedicle. The flap is elevated from proximal to distal including the dorsal forearm fascia. Over the dorsal extensor retinaculum, the dissection is underwent close to it elevating all the subcutaneous tissues. The medial collateral branch of the superficial radial nerve should be identified and respected. At the distal border of the dorsal retinaculum, the extensor pollicis longus and the extensor carpi radialis longus tendons are identified and retracted. The pedicle dissection goes deeper between this two tendons towards the first web space. It takes all the areolar tissue around the pedicle in order to preserve the venous network of the cutaneous paddle. The donor site is closed primarily if the skin width does not exceed 3 cm or grafted secondarily. Its large rotational arc allows the cutaneous paddle to cover the dorsal hand and metacarpo-phalangeal long fingers defects, the dorsal aspect of the thumb and the first intermetacarpal space. It can also safely reach the palmar aspect of the wrist. We report four clinical cases where the dorsoradial flap was successfully applied. This preliminary clinical experience exhibits the vascular network reliability and the operative technique simplicity of this new cutaneous flap. We believe that it should be added to the armamentarium of the reconstructive hand surgeon and considered as a useful tool for soft tissue hand and thumb reconstruction defects.     

Venous drainage in retrograde pedicle flaps: experimental study in rats

This study was performed to investigate the venous drainage in reverse island groin flaps in a rat model. Two groups of 10 rats were studied. All rats of group A had a groin reverse flap with a complete pedicle (artery and venae comitantes). In rats of group B, an arterial groin reverse flap (artery without venae comitantes) was performed. For the two groups, the perivascular tissue was excised. Nine flaps in the group A and seven flaps in the group B, survived without partial or complete necrosis. Microscopic examination showed venous dilatation in the two groups. There was no significant difference between the two groups. These results confirm that venous drainage of the arterial reverse flow flap without venae comitantes is performed by venae arteriosa. However, venae comitantes probably ensure venous drainage when they are respected.     

Use of a reverse cross-finger flap as a vascularized vein graft carrier in ring avulsion injuries

We describe the use of a reverse cross-finger pedicle flap, previously described by Atasoy, that carries veins used as vascularized grafts to restore venous drainage in ring avulsion injuries. In addition, vascularized soft tissue is provided to cover extensor tendon and exposed bone.     

Der ein- und zweizeitige distal gestielte Suralislappen

Background

The distally pedicled suralis flap is used to cover local defects of the distal lower leg, ankle and hind foot. It is a local flap with no need for microvascular anastomosis, a constant blood supply and ease of elevation. Disadvantages are lack of sensation, donor site morbidity and venous congestion.

Methods and material

This study includes 25 patients. Apart from the defect extent, cause and location, complications were also determined.

Results

The defect site was located in the hind foot in 5 cases and the distal lower leg in 14 cases. In four patients the soft tissue of the lateral calcaneal region and in two cases the sole of the foot were affected. Severe venous congestion, which was only detected in 180° turned flaps, was seen in five cases. In five patients we successfully performed a two-stage flap transposition procedure to avoid venous congestion.

Conclusion

The sural flap remains a reliable solution for soft tissue defects. Under inappropriate circumstances (small pedicle or severe torque of pedicle) venous congestion or even thrombosis is possible. A two-stage approach with conditioning of venous drainage can have a positive effect on these problems.     

Venous augmentation of the free TRAM flap.

Venous congestion in a free TRAM or DIEP flap when the main pedicle is still patent (both the artery and the vein) is an occasional dire situation. Here, we describe ways of salvaging the free TRAM or DIEP flap from imminent loss. In the last 4 years, we have had three patients who developed venous congestion after the use of the TRAM or DIEP flap for breast reconstruction. This was detected as late as the third postoperative day in our first patient. On exploration, patent arterial and venous anastomoses were found. Fortunately, the opposite pedicle had been dissected and preserved with the flap. The patent congested vein in this pedicle was anastomosed to the cephalic vein using an interpositional vein graft, relieving the congestion. In the other two patients congestion was detected earlier and relieved using the superficial inferior epigastric vein. It has been our policy to dissect a length of the opposite pedicle and/or preserve a length of the superficial inferior epigastric vein or the superficial circumflex iliac vein. These can then be used to augment venous drainage if inadequacy is noted at the end of the operation or during the postoperative period.     

Pedicle transfer in oral cavity reconstruction

In head and neck reconstructions when a free flap is used intra orally to provide the lining its vascular pedicle has to be transferred to the neck for anastomosis. This has to be performed in such a way that the pedicle does not get kinked or twisted. The pedicle is enrolled in a split open glove from its point of entry into the flap till its proximal most part. In order to prevent twisting of the vessels and to maintain orientation, the glove is wrapped in such a way that the imprint on the glove is on the visualized surface. The glove wrapped pedicle is passed from inside the oral cavity while an artery clamp passed from the neck wound through the submandibular or subcutaneous tunnel holds the tip of the glove component and guides it safely to the neck without exerting any traction on the flap or the pedicle vessels.     

邻近逆行穿支带蒂双皮瓣修复足部贯通伤的临床疗效

目的：探讨邻近逆行穿支带蒂双皮瓣修复足部贯通伤的治疗经验及临床疗效。方法2010年1月至2014年7月,我科收治9例足部贯通伤病人,伤足均有不同程度的两侧软组织缺损,早期彻底清创、止血,大量液体冲洗下负压封闭引流覆盖创面,择期以邻近逆行带蒂腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣和内踝上皮瓣一次性修复两侧皮肤软组织缺损。术后观察皮瓣存活情况,并采用美国足踝外科医师协会（AOFAS）踝与后足功能评分系统评价伤足的恢复情况。结果术后2例皮瓣边缘坏死,分别经换药和植皮后成活;1例外侧皮瓣创口长时间渗液,经换药引流,4周后愈合;其余病人皮瓣均顺利成活,供区创面一期愈合。本组9例均获随访,病人对其外形、色泽、厚度可接受。AOFAS踝与后足功能评分系统评价均为优。结论邻近逆行穿支带蒂双皮瓣是修复足部贯通伤的有效方法,围手术期处理使污染创面变成相对清洁创面是皮瓣成功的基础条件,合理选择、设计皮瓣,深筋膜充分填塞创腔是治疗成功的关键。     

The radial forearm flap without fascia and other refinements

The radial forearm flap is generally classified as a fasciocutaneous flap. The skin of the forearm is, however, supplied by branches from the radial artery which pierce the fascia of the forearm to course and branch subcutaneously. We have used the flap as a skin flap in 300 cases over 11 years. It is not necessary to take the fascia with the flap. Two other refinements of the forearm flap, also used over the past 11 years, are described. The venous drainage of the flap is simplified by utilising the usual anatomical confluence of deep and superficial veins at the elbow. Secondly, draping a large loop of pedicle in the neck during intraoral reconstruction enables a larger calibre vein to be used for the anastomosis, thus increasing its reliability.     

Easy venous superdrainage in DIEP flap breast reconstruction through the intercostal branch

The deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap has been shown to be a valid option for breast reconstruction, as it has certain advantages over the free TRAM flap, including lower morbidity in the donor area, conservation of abdominal wall function, and reduced postoperative pain. However, some cases of venous congestion in using the DIEP flap have been described. The authors present a case in which the venous return in a DIEP flap objectively (by measurement with a flux meter) presented a marked improvement (from 4 ml/min to 13.9 ml/min) after venous drainage was increased by means of the supplementary anastomosis of a comitant vein from the deep inferior epigastric pedicle to the intercostal branch of the internal mammary vein. The preservation of this branch is a simple and effective technique to improve the venous drainage of DIEP flaps, whether signs of congestion are present or not.     

闭式负压引流联合带腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复近踝足部肌腱与骨外露创面

目的:评价用闭式负压引流(VSD)技术联合带腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复近踝足部肌腱与骨外露创面的实用方法。方法:2006年1月至2009年1月应用VSD技术联合带腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复治疗79例近踝足部肌腱与骨外露创面患者,男58例,女21例;年龄7～59岁,平均34岁。其中小腿下1/3及跟腱区17例,外踝及足背外侧区28例,内踝及足内侧区21例,足跟及足底13例。创面Ⅰ期用VSD技术清创培养,Ⅱ期用带腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复。结果:皮瓣面积最大18 cm×15 cm,最小6 cm×5 cm。住院时间14～30 d,平均18 d。79例患者随访6～36个月,2例皮瓣大部分坏死,3例皮瓣皮缘坏死,5例皮瓣术后出现静脉回流障碍,其余皮瓣均成活良好,无感染。结论:通过VSD技术可尽快形成一个肉芽组织新鲜清洁的创面;带腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣能为近踝足部肌腱与骨外露创面提供良好的覆盖。二者联合应用创面愈合快,修复后外形好,耐磨擦,大大缩短了患者住院时间。     

Effects of hyperbaric oxygen treatment and heparin on the survival of unipedicled venous flaps: an experimental study in rats

The effects of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) and heparin on the survival of the rat inferior epigastric venous flap were investigated. Preliminary transcutaneous oxygen measurements showed that partial oxygen pressure values of venous flaps increased at 2.5 ATA pressure while inhaling 100% oxygen. During the experiment, 128 venous flaps of two different sizes and 50 composite grafts were prepared bilaterally in 89 rats. Perivenous areolar tissue was removed from the pedicle vein in all flaps. Half of the venous flaps were isolated from the wound bed. Initial flap perfusion was tested by fluorescein injection during flap elevation. Four treatment groups were created: control, heparin, HBO, and HBO+heparin. After 6 days of treatment, the mean surviving flap area was calculated for each group. Surviving flaps were reelevated, final flap perfusion was tested by fluorescein injection, and flaps were harvested for histological examination. The mean survival rates of the HBO (26.56%) and the HBO+heparin (36.87%) groups were significantly higher than the control (0%) and the heparin (0%) groups (p<0.01). None of the composite grafts survived. Smaller flaps and nonisolated flaps survived better, although not significantly (p>0.05). Veins were enlarged both clinically and histologically. Fluorescein uptake was delayed during initial flap elevation but was normal during reelevation. These findings imply that the rat inferior epigastric venous flap may be an ischemic flap with capillary circulation through a single venous pedicle, but it needs HBO treatment to survive, especially during the acute period. Heparin treatment, reducing the flap size, and presence of a vascular wound bed also improve survival rates.     

A novel salvage approach for pedicle axial flap--free-ization of pedicle internal mammary artery perforator flap

A pedicle flap with distal segment compromise is classically managed by allowing tissue demarcation, debridement of non-viable tissue, and local tissue manipulation to achieve wound closure. When aggressive debridement leaves insufficient tissue for defect coverage, the original flap is often discarded. We present a case of distal necrosis of a pedicle internal mammary artery perforator flap for cheek reconstruction. The flap, which was rendered too small after debridement for defect coverage in its pedicle form, was converted to a free flap. The technical details of such conversion and potential feasibility of applying this conversion to other compromised pedicle flaps are discussed. We hypothesized that the principle of "free-ization" can be applied effectively for salvage of other failing pedicle flaps with axial blood supply.     

Reconstruction of distal forefoot burn defect with retrograde medial plantar flap

Burn reconstruction of forefoot remains as a difficult challenge, because the local flap alternatives are limited. We evaluated the efficiency of distally based medial plantar fasciocutaneous island flap in the coverage of forefoot defects resulting from release of toe contracture and burn debridement. Four patients with toe contractures and two patients with third degree burn in forefoot were treated between June 2004 and February 2006. The mean follow-up period was 10.4 months. The flaps were elevated as with a fasciocutaneous base on the distal medial plantar artery. The dimensions of the flaps ranged from 4cmx3cm to 5cmx4cm. The skin over the pedicle was included as a part of flap in three cases. Concomitant vein of the pedicle was anastomosed with the first plantar digital vein in four cases. In the early postoperative period, one flap used to cover third degree burn due to high-voltage electric injury was lost completely. We concluded that this flap was an appropriate alternative reconstructive option for the forefoot defect. Including skin and subcutaneous tissue over the pedicle to flap protects the pedicle against kinking and compression. Venous supercharging of the flap improves venous drainage.     

Treatment of postoperative osteomyelitis using an omental pedicle flap

We described two patients with postoperative sternal osteomyelitis with mediastinal abscess who were successfully treated by omentopexy. One was a 15-year-old boy. Five days after accessory pathway division for Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, he was diagnosed as having sternal osteomyelitis. Cultures of the exudate yielded staphylococcus epidermidis. Closed continuous irrigation with diluted povidone-iodine was not effective. After open drainage, omentopexy with an omental pedicle flap was performed. Postoperatively, computed tomography showed no abnormal findings in the omental flap and surrounding tissue. The second patient was a 33-year-old man. Re-aortic valve replacement for aortic regurgitation was performed. Eleven days after the operation, he was diagnosed as having postoperative sternal osteomyelitis. Cultures of the drainage fluid yielded staphylococcus epidermidis. Continuous closed irrigation with povidone-iodine was ineffective. Thus, the wound was opened and omentopexy with an omental pedicle flap was performed. The postoperative course was uneventful. Computed tomography showed no residual abscess or recurrent inflammation. We conclude that the omentopexy is useful in the treatment of postoperative sternal osteomyelitis.     

指侧方动脉皮支血管链皮瓣修复手指末节软组织缺损

目的 总结应用指侧方动脉皮支血管链皮瓣修复手指末节软组织缺损的临床疗效.方法 2011年1月-2013年3月,对24例由各种原因导致的手指末节软组织缺损采用指侧方动脉皮支血管链皮瓣修复创面,清创后创面缺损面积为2.0 cm×3.0 cm～3.0 cm×4.0 cm,皮瓣面积为3.0 cm×4.0 cm～4.0 cm×5.0 cm.结果 21例皮瓣全部成活,1例皮瓣边缘浅表坏死,1例皮瓣远端部分坏死,经二期扩创植皮后伤口愈合,另1例术后3d出现静脉危象,立即拆除部分蒂部过紧的缝合线,经换药两周后二期愈合.结论 指侧方动脉皮支血管链皮瓣是修复手指末节软组织缺损较好的修复方法.     

The venous flap - a safe alternative to the simple vein graft in a special situation.

The use of free tissue transfer has evolved to become the mainstay of treatment of tissue defects. The reconstructive surgeon can choose from a wide variety of flaps. Flaps are chosen based on the tissue defect and also on the characteristics of the pedicle in terms of calibre and vessel length. Occasionally situations arise necessitating the use of vein grafts. Vein grafts can be used primarily as part of a planned procedure to increase pedicle length or as a salvage technique following anastomotic complication. We report the use of venous flap instead of a conventional vein graft, for restoring continuity of the arterial flow in the pedicle of a free flap, following resection of a thrombosed segment. A venous flap harvested from the left leg with a cutaneous vein was used in a flow-through fashion to restore the continuity of the arterial inflow to the flap. The venous flap is an ideal option in selected cases instead of a vein graft. This is specifically indicated where there is a shortage of soft tissue to cover the anastomosis. The pedicle can then be covered in a tension-free manner. Thus in addition to extremity wounds, the venous flap can be used safely in salvage of difficult situations in the head and neck area.     

Restoration of venous outflow by simultaneous creation of an arteriovenous shunt and pedicle flap using a rat model of foot replantation.

Replantation of amputated rat feet utilizing an efferent arteriovenous shunt constructed between the distal posterior tibial artery and the proximal posterior tibial vein, in the absence of all other venous drainage, provides an alternative pathway to the normal venous drainage in a replanted rat foot. However, this substitute venous drainage was insufficient to prevent progressive ischemia and necrosis of some or all of a replanted rat foot. When a cutaneous pedicle flap supplemented the arteriovenous shunt, venous drainage was much improved, tissue hypoxia and edema began to subside on the third day, severe tissue necrosis was prevented, and seven of eight feet replanted by this technique survived. These observations may be useful in replantation in humans when veins in the amputated part are too small to be used or so damaged that they cannot be repaired or reconstructed by a vein graft, but arteries can still provide a means of returning blood from the amputated part. Constructing an alternative pathway to the normal venous drainage pattern may allow severely damaged parts to survive after replantation.     

Reconstruction of extensive upper extremity defects using pre-expanded oblique perforator-based paraumbilical flaps

The pedicled paraumbilical flap is a reliable tissue transfer for hand and forearm reconstruction. However, its size, pedicle length and/or thickness limit its application in resurfacing of extensive defects of the upper limb. To conquer those limitations, this flap was pre-expanded for 10-24 weeks prior to transfer in 25 patients and used as a pedicle flap to cover upper extremity defects. Extensive defects of upper limb were reconstructed by the pre-expanded paraumbilical flaps. The flaps ranged in size from 10 cm × 8 cm to 30 cm × 14 cm. The donor sites were closed directly in all cases. All flaps survived, but two had partial flap necrosis due to venous congestion or infection. With pre-transfer expansion, a large, well-perfused abdominal pedicle flap can be raised and transferred based on the paraumbilical perforators. This pre-expanded flap might be useful in the patients who have the extensive upper limb defects and sufficient time to allow tissue expansion.