EEG findings in minor head trauma as a clue for indication to CT scan

In order to investigate the role of EEG in minor head traumata in the pediatric age, EEG and CT scan findings were compared in a series of 103 consecutive cases of children hospitalized within 24 h after head trauma. The EEGs were classified as normal in 50 patients, borderline in 10 patients, and abnormal in 43 patients. CT scan showed contusion in 6 patients and extracerebral hematoma in 4. All cases of abnormal CT scans were reported for patients with frankly abnormal EEG findings. In contrast, no pathological findings were found in CT scans for patients with normal EEG. The data suggest that EEG findings can play a major role in the diagnostic workup of patients with minor head traumata. Specifically, in the case of asymptomatic patients with normal EEG findings, it is likely that the CT scan will also be normal.Presented at the 11th Meeting of the European Society for Paediatric Neurosurgery, Naples 1988     

脑电图反应性预测重型颅脑外伤性昏迷患者预后的研究

目的 比较脑电图(EEG)反应性、EEG分型和GCS评分三种方法预测重型颅脑外伤性昏迷患者预后的临床价值.方法 入组患者为2007年1月至2010年12月,南京医科大学第一附属医院重型颅脑外伤性昏迷患者55例,分别对其进行了EEG反应性、EEG分型和GCS检查评估,并进行1年的随访,观察患者的预后转归情况.结果 EEG反应性、EEG分型和GCS评分预测昏迷患者预后的准确度分别为87.3％、78.2％和74.5％,P＜0.05.结论 EEG反应性是判断颅脑外伤性昏迷患者预后较为理想的预测指标.     

Disability in young people and adults after head injury: 5-7 year follow up of a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND: Improvement 1-2 years after head injury is well established but the pattern thereafter is unclear. Past studies have not examined representative head injury populations and typically report findings in terms of functioning across social, psychological, neurobehavioural, or cognitive domains rather than global outcome. OBJECTIVE: To determine the late outcome of a representative cohort of participants admitted to hospital after a head injury 5-7 years previously and to identify early and late factors correlating with persisting disability and change between one and 5-7 years. METHODS: A representative cohort of head injured people whose outcome one year after injury was reported previously, were followed up 5-7 years after injury. Participants were assessed using structured and validated measures of global outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended), cognitive impairment, psychological wellbeing, health status, and social factors. RESULTS: Of 475 survivors studied at one year, 115 (24%) had died by seven years. In survivors at 5-7 years, disability remained frequent (53%); and the rate, similar to that found at one year (57%). Sixty three participants (29%) had improved but 55 (25%) deteriorated. The persistence of disability and its development after previous recovery each showed stronger associations with indices of depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem than with initial severity of injury or persisting cognitive impairment. CONCLUSIONS: Admission to hospital after head injury is followed 5-7 years later by disability in a high proportion of survivors. Persistence of disability and development of new disability are strongly associated with psychosocial factors that may be open to remediation, even late after injury.     

A prospective clinical and epidemiological study of head injuries in Northern Italy: The Comune of Ravenna

An analysis of all the head injuries occurring during one year within a well-defined geographical area was conducted in the region served by the Ravenna City Hospital in Northern Italy. This hospital does not have a neurosurgical service, so that patients suspected of having neurosurgical problems are transferred to the neurosurgical unit in Bologna, a distance of 65 Km (40 mi.). Of the 1468 head-injured patients seen in the emergency room, 644 (44%) were hospitalized, with an incidence of 372/10⁵ pop/year) and were subjected to X-ray study of the skull (83%), EEG (64%), and CT scan (7,5%). 9 patients were transferred to the neurosurgical unit as emergencies on a clinical basis only, all were found to harbor cerebral lesions, and 7 were operated on. Of the patients hospitalized and subjected to CT scan in Ravenna, only one (0,17%) was found to have a lesion necessitating surgery. Mortality was 7.2% with 83% of these patients dying before admission. Three-month follow-up examination revealed the persistence of some symptoms in 20% of the 379 patients examined, but 91% had already returned to their previous occupation. Analysis of the risk factors present in the patients admitted to a non-specialized hospital seems to show that the presence of skull fracture, abnormal EEG, and alteration of the clinical condition constitute the indications for a CT scan, in order to detect the presence of intracranial lesions. In spite of the recommendation to reduce the number of hospital admissions after a minor head injury, no sure elements emerge from our series that can be used for this purpose, other than the already suggested but expensive policy of subjecting all patients seen in the emergency room to plain X-ray examination of the skull.

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Sommario Gli autori hanno studiato per un anno tutti i traumi cranici che sono avvenuti all'interno di un'area geografica ben delimitata afferente all'Ospedale di Ravenna, nel Nord-Italia. L'Ospedale di Ravenna non possiede una Divisione di Neurochirurga per cui i casi con possibili problemi neurochirurgici vengono trasferiti nel Centro Specialistico regionale a Bologna, ad una distanza di 65 km (40 miglia). Dei 1.468 pazienti visti in Pronto Soccorso per trauma cranico, 644 (44%) sono stati ricoverati, con una incidenza di 172/10⁵/anno, sono stati studiati con una radiografia del cranio (83%) con un E.E.G. (64%) e con una TAC (7,5%). Nove pazienti sono stati trasferiti d'urgenza in Neurochirurgia su sola indicazione clinica. Tutti presentavano lesioni cerebrali e 7 sono stati operati. Fra i pazienti ricoverati e sottoposti a TAC all'Ospedale di Ravenna, solo 1 (0.17%) ha presentato una lesione di pertinenza chirurgica. La mortalità è stata del 7,2% con un 83% di casi deceduti prima dell'ingresso in Ospedale. Un controllo clinico eseguito a tre mesi dal trauma in 379 pazienti ha mostrato la persistenza di qualche sintomo nel 20% ma il 91% dei casi era già tornato alla precedente attività lavorativa. Una analisi dei fattori di rischio presenti fra i pazienti ricoverati in un Ospedale non specializzato pare mostrare che la presenza di una frattura cranica, di un E.E.G. non normale e di condizioni cliniche alterate possa costituire indicazioni alla TAC in modo da poter rilevare la presenza di lesioni intracraniche. Nonostante la raccomandazione di ridurre il numero dei ricoveri dopo trauma cranico minore, nessun elemento sicuro pare emergere dalla nostra raccolta dati che possa essere usato per questo scopo al di là di quanto già suggerito, ma forse impraticabile a causa degli alti costi, cioé l'indicazione alla esecuzione della radiografia del cranio in tutti i pazienti che vengono visti in Pronto Soccorso dopo un trauma cranico minore.

     

Clinical neurological trauma parameters as predictors for neuropsychological recovery and long-term outcome in paediatric closed head injury: a review of the literature

We present a review of recent prospective studies of long-term outcome in paediatric closed head injury. Special attention is given to the relationship between the neurological trauma parameters and neuropsychological outcome. First we discuss the most important methods of assessing the severity of the injury. We review the most prominent neurobehavioural and cognitive sequelae. Subsequently we address the question of prediction of residual sequelae in view of the early trauma parameters. The main problem when comparing different studies is the lack of procedural uniformity both in assessment of the severity of the injury as well as in measurement of neuropsychological outcome. Inconsistencies and discrepancies among various studies are pointed out. We summarise those results which are supported by many studies and hence are less controversial. In addition we present some recommendations for future investigations.     

Outcome after traumatic frontal intracerebral haemorrhage: a comparison of unilateral and bilateral haematomas

Frontal intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is a common result of cranial trauma. Outcome differences between bilateral and unilateral frontal ICH are not well studied but would be valuable to predict prognosis in clinical practice. Two aims are proposed in this study: first to compare the risk of developing delayed ICH after bilateral or unilateral frontal ICH, and second to determine the variables helpful to predict outcome according to the Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS). Between January 1993 and December 1997, 694 consecutive patients with traumatic ICH were admitted to the Chang Gung Medical Center within 24 h of the trauma. Patients with ICH in sites other than the frontal lobes were excluded. A total of 161 cases (mean age 46.3+/-20.3 years), including 57 bilateral (mean age 52.5+/-18.7 years) and 104 unilateral (mean age 42.9+/-20.5 years) traumatic frontal ICH were studied. Twenty-eight of 57 patients (49%) with bifrontal ICH versus 17 of 104 patients (16%) with unilateral frontal ICH had a further, delayed ICH. In 42 of 45 patients (93%) with delayed ICH, this occurred within 5 days of the initial trauma. Multivariate logistic regression was used to select significant predictors of outcome. We found that delayed ICH (p<0.001), age (p=0.004) and mechanism of injury (p=0.001) explained the worse outcome in patients with bifrontal ICH. The best-fitting logistic regression model included three variables: delayed ICH (p=0.011), initial GCS (p=0.023), and a sum score of clinical and radiological variables (p=0.003). Bifrontal ICH tended to occur in older patients after a fall and was associated with a higher risk of developing delayed ICH or brain stem compression compared to unilateral ICH damage. Using these three variables - delayed ICH, initial GCS, and the sum score - in a logistical regression model is useful to predict outcome in patients with traumatic frontal ICH and may aid patient management.     

Evaluation of epilepsy management in a developing country: a prospective study of 407 patients

407 patients (248 men, 159 women) of epilepsy attending the neurology clinic were evaluated to find out the profile of epilepsy, cost-effectiveness of various investigations, therapeutic regimens and efficacy of referring physicians in a developing country. At the time of onset of seizures 67.2% of patients were in the second and third decade. Generalised tonic clonic seizures were the commonest seizure type seen. Specific aetiology was established in 20.8% cases only. Neurocysticercosis was the commonest cause observed. The main source of referral (50.1%) was general practitioners. Referral diagnosis was incomplete in 52.8% of the cases. Investigations did not alter the diagnosis in 62.5% cases. The EEG was useful in the management of 15.1% cases of epilepsy. The skull x-ray and chest x-ray were abnormal in 1.7% and 2% cases respectively. CT scan revealed abnormality in 39.4% cases. Most of the patients were treated with monotherapy. Phenytoin, phenobarbitone and carbamazepine were the common drug used. Out of 246 cases who were started on anticonvulsant therapy prior to referral, the choice of drug was wrong in 78 (31.7%) cases and dose was inappropriate in 121 (49.2%) cases. It was concluded that most important factor for cost effective management of epilepsy is proper clinical evaluation and education of general physicians in this direction.     

Headache of recent onset in adults: a prospective population-based study

One hundred consecutive adult patients with headache of recent onset were prospectively studied. Every patient was examined by craneal CT scan. Their mean age was 46 years (range 17–82). Neurological examination was normal in 80 patients. Organic headache represented 39% of the entire group, and 26% of them had a normal neurological examination. The yield of CT scan in patients with headaches and a normal neurological examination was 22.5% (95% IC: 14%-33%); of which we encountered the following pathologies: intracranial tumors (13), hydrocephalus (2), arachnoid cyst (1), toxoplasmic abscess (1) and parenchymal hemorrhage (1). The clinical characteristics of the headache on their own was insufficient to rule out the possibility of an intracranial tumor. Neuroimaging studies should be performed in all adult patients with non-vascular headache of recent onset, and previously headache-free individuals.     

Quantitative pupillometry in patients with traumatic brain injury and loss of consciousness: A prospective pilot study

ObjectiveLoss of consciousness (LOC) is a hallmark feature in Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), and a strong predictor of outcomes after TBI. The aim of this study was to describe associations between quantitative infrared pupillometry values and LOC, intracranial hypertension, and functional outcomes in patients with TBI.MethodsWe conducted a prospective study of patients evaluated at a Level 1 trauma center between November 2019 and February 2020. Pupillometry values including the Neurological Pupil Index (NPi), constriction velocity (CV), and dilation velocity (DV) were obtained.ResultsThirty-six consecutive TBI patients were enrolled. The median (range) age was 48 (range 21–86) years. The mean Glasgow Coma Scale score on arrival was 11.8 (SD = 4.0). DV trichotomized as low (<0.5 mm/s), moderate (0.5–1.0 mm/s), or high (>1.0 mm/s) was significantly associated with LOC (P = .02), and the need for emergent intervention (P < .01). No significant association was observed between LOC and NPi (P = .16); nor between LOC and CV (P = .07).ConclusionsOur data suggests that DV, as a discrete variable, is associated with LOC in TBI. Further investigation of the relationship between discrete pupillometric variables and NPi may be valuable to understand the clinical significance of the pupillary light reflex findings in acute TBI.     

头外伤后眼眶骨折致眼球突出13例临床分析

目的 探讨头外伤而非眼球直接受伤后眼眶骨折导致眼球突出的形成机制、临床特点、诊断和治疗方法 . 方法 回顾性分析头外伤后眼眶骨折致眼球突出的13例患者(14眼)的致伤原因、临床表现、形成机制、骨折类型、手术时机、手术方式及疗效.术前行眼眶螺旋CT薄层扫描及三维重建,根据骨折部位选择适当手术人路整复骨折或去除骨折片,术后随访. 结果 患者均存在不同程度的颅脑损伤,尤以前额受损为主(12例).共14只眼球发生突出,术前平均突出度为(2.94±0.47)mm;8例眼球突出方向为向外下,5例为向前下方.眼眶骨折位于眶上壁或(和)内侧壁,均为眶壁向眶内骨折.手术过程顺利,术后眼部症状迅速消失,无死亡及重度残废病例. 结论 头外伤时发生的局部颅骨变形及脑组织移动是导致眶壁向眶内骨折的主要原因,进而使眶内容积变小发生眼球突出.螺旋CT检查对其诊治和随访具有重要意义.应早期手术治疗,效果良好.     

Treatment resistance of depression after head injury: a preliminary study of amitriptyline response.

Thirteen patients with depression following minor head injury were matched with 13 functional depressives. Both groups were indistinguishable psychopathologically. Five of the functional group had a family history of affective disorder and none of the head-injury group had such a history. Both groups were treated with amitriptyline, beginning with 100 mg daily, increasing to a maximum of 250 mg/d. There were significant differences in response between the 2 groups, with only 4 of the head-injury patients improving. Our preliminary results suggest that this condition is relatively resistant to tricyclic therapy.     

Behavioral treatment of children after severe head injury: a pilot study

Little has been written on the treatment of cognitive and behavioral disorders in children following serious head injuries with coma. We have used the behavioral modification method known as Token Economy in 20 head-injured patients having a mean age of 11 years. The treatment, which involved the children's families, proved at one-year follow-up to be highly successful in normalizing maladaptive behavior.

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Sommario Gli autori, analizzando la più recente letteratura sull'argomento, notano che vi è una relativamente scarsa attenzione rivolta alle conseguenze sul piano più prettamente cognitivo e comportamentale, in pazienti con grave trauma cranico e coma in età evolutiva. Descrivono nel loro lavoro l'applicazione della Token Economy, una tecnica che fa capo ai metodi noti come Analisi e Modificazione del Comportamento, in un gruppo di 20 pazienti con trauma cranico chiuso con un'età media di 11 anni. Il trattamento ha avuto, con un follow-up di un anno, un buon successo riguardo alla scomparsa dei comportamenti disadattivi residui dal trauma cranico.

     

Impairment after severe blunt head injury: the results from a consecutive series of 100 patients

Three scales, assessing the degree of brain impairment after severe blunt head injury in neurophysical and neuropsychological functions as well as overall organic functioning, are described. A consecutive series of 100 severe blunt head injured patients was followed up 6 years post-trauma and the scales were used to measure the residual impairments and determine the level of recovery for 82 subjects in the series. No subject made a complete neurophysical and neuropsychological recovery, 92% of the series was classified as suffering clinically significant impairments and in half the series the moderate or severe impairments were consistent with a poor level of recovery. The impairments of a large proportion (42%) of the series, however, were classified as mild. Although most subjects demonstrated impairments in both neurophysical and neuropsychological functions, 43% of the series suffered isolated impairments in either the neurophysical or neuropsychological areas. There was strong agreement between the overall organic impairment profile and the subjects' classifications on the Glasgow Outcome Scale.     

Causes of death amongst French patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a prospective study

Background and purpose: To prospectively investigate causes of death and the circumstances surrounding death in 302 patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The functional status of patients immediately before death was also determined. Methods: Information was obtained from neurologists at ALS centres, patients’ files, and, when deaths occurred outside a medical facility, attending physicians. Results: Most patients (63%) died in a medical facility. The most frequently reported cause of death was respiratory failure (77%), including terminal respiratory insufficiency (58%), pneumonia (14%), asphyxia due to a foreign body (3%) and pulmonary embolism (2%). Ten per cent of patients died from other causes: post‐surgical or traumatic conditions (5%), cardiac causes (3.4%), suicide (1.3%) and sudden death of unknown origin (0.7%). The cause of death could not be determined in 13% of cases (6% inside a medical facility and 25% outside). At the time of death, only 55% of patients were receiving riluzole, 33% were undergoing non‐invasive ventilation, 3% had a tracheotomy and 37% a gastrostomy. Conclusion: The information provided by this study helps to improve our understanding of the natural history of the disease and may help optimize the quality of care we can offer patients at the end of life.     

Factors associated with increased risk of head tremor in essential tremor: a community-based study in northern Manhattan.

Head tremor is one of the major expressions of essential tremor (ET). It is not well understood why some patients develop head tremor, whereas others do not. A study of the characteristics of patients with head tremor has not been undertaken. Our goal was to estimate the prevalence of head tremor and to identify demographic and clinical characteristics associated with an increased risk of head tremor in ET. Cases were ascertained from a community-based study of ET in northern Manhattan, New York. Arm tremor severity was rated with a total tremor score. Logistic regression analyses resulted in odds ratios (OR). Head tremor was present in 37 (34.9%) of 106 ET cases. Female gender was associated with a fourfold increased risk of head tremor (OR = 3.73; P = 0.005). Total tremor score was divided into quartiles; individuals in the lowest or highest quartile were four times more likely to have head tremor (OR = 4.16; P = 0.001). Individuals with both risk factors (female gender and lowest or highest total tremor score quartile) were 16 times more likely to have head tremor (OR = 15.88; P = 0.0006). Being related to a proband with head tremor marginally increased the risk of head tremor (OR = 11.30; P = 0.08). Age and tremor duration did not influence the risk of head tremor. We identified several factors that were associated with an increased risk of head tremor in ET; female gender, coexisting arm tremor that was either very mild or extremely severe, and relation to an ET case with head tremor. These disease associations require further exploration, and might provide insight into the mechanisms underlying head tremor.     

Development of an early prediction model for postoperative delirium in neurosurgical patients admitted to the ICU after elective craniotomy (E-PREPOD-NS): A secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study

Postoperative delirium (POD) is a significant clinical problem in neurosurgical patients after intracranial surgery. Identification of high-risk patients may optimize perioperative management, but an adequate risk model for use at early phase after operation has not been developed. In the secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study, 800 adult patients admitted to the ICU after elective intracranial surgeries were included. The POD was diagnosed as Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU positive on postoperative day 1 to 3. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to develop early prediction model (E-PREPOD-NS) and the final model was validated with 200 bootstrap samples. The incidence of POD in this cohort was19.6%. We identified nine variables independently associated with POD in the final model: advanced age (OR 3.336, CI 1.765–6.305, 1 point), low education level (OR 2.528, 1.446–4.419, 1), smoking history (OR 2.582, 1.611–4.140, 1), diabetes (OR 2.541, 1.201–5.377, 1), supra-tentorial lesions (OR 3.424, 2.021–5.802, 1), anesthesia duration > 360 min (OR 1.686, 1.062–2.674, 0.5), GCS < 9 at ICU admission (OR 6.059, 3.789–9.690, 1.5), metabolic acidosis (OR 13.903, 6.248–30.938, 2.5), and neurosurgical drainage tube (OR 1.924, 1.132–3.269, 0.5). The area under the receiver operator curve (AUROC) of the risk score for prediction of POD was 0.865 (95% CI 0.835–0.895). The AUROC was 0.851 after internal validation (95% CI 0.791–0.912). The model showed good calibration. The E-PREPOD-NS model can predict POD in patients admitted to the ICU after elective intracranial surgery with good accuracy. External validation is needed in the future.     

Physical morbidity in a group of patients referred to a psychogeriatric unit; A 6-month prospective study

In a 6-month prospective study of all admissions (N = 72) to an old age psychiatric unit, 34% (N = 24) were found to have significant physical illnesses at the time of admission. Sixty-two per cent of the conditions were detected by a combination of clinical methods and simple tests alone. There was no significant difference in terms of age, sex, marital status or a past history of psychiatric treatment between those who were initially diagnosed as physically ill and those who were physically well at the time of admission. Higher levels of morbidity were found in those with an organic psychiatric diagnosis compared to those with a functional psychiatric diagnosis, although this did not reach a statistically significant level. It is suggested that simple tests can be carried out in the community by family doctors.     

Six-month mortality and functional outcomes in aneurysmal sub-arachnoid haemorrhage patients admitted to intensive care units in Australia and New Zealand: A prospective cohort study

Historical studies suggest survivors of aneurysmal sub-arachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) have at least a moderate burden of functional impairment. However, there is a paucity of modern data concerning these outcomes in those admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). Accordingly, the aim of this multicentre prospective observational cohort study was to provide contemporary epidemiological data concerning 6-month outcomes of adult aneurysmal SAH patients admitted to ICU in Australia and New Zealand (ANZ). Between March 2016 and June 2018 (inclusive), 357 patients requiring ICU admission were enrolled into the study, from eleven (n = 11) neurosurgical centres in ANZ. The majority of patients were female (n = 242, 68%), the median [IQR] age was 57 [49, 67] years, and almost all were living independently prior to their SAH (n = 337, 94%). 38% (n = 134) suffered a high-grade (WFNS 4–5) SAH. The median index ICU and hospital lengths of stay (LOS) were 9 [4–14], and 20 [13–29] days, respectively. In-hospital mortality was 22% (n = 77). Of the evaluable cohort (n = 348), a further nine (n = 9) patients had died by 6-months, yielding an all cause mortality of 25% (n = 86). Moreover, 35% (n = 114) of assessable patients were ‘dead or disabled’ (modified Rankin scale ≥4) at 6-months, and there was significant variation between sites, independent of SAH severity. Overall, these patients consumed substantial healthcare resources, and given the burden of mortality and morbidity, in addition to the variability between institutions, there may be opportunity to improve patient outcomes.