Psychometric evaluation of a self-medication assessment tool in an elderly population

Background:

Most community-dwelling older adults are engaged in medication self-management activities. Deviation in these activities can lead to adverse outcomes for patients and an increased burden on the health care system. Successful medication self-management involves a complex interaction among cognitive, functional, and psychosocial variables. Several assessment instruments have been developed, but there remains a need for an effective and comprehensive tool.

Objective:

To evaluate the psychometric properties (inter-rater reliability, test–retest reliability, and validity), as well as the usability, of the Self-Medication Assessment Tool (SMAT), an instrument designed to measure elderly patients’ ability to manage their medications.

Methods:

The study enrolled patients 65 years of age or older who were living independently and were admitted to family medicine beds in a community hospital in eastern Canada. Three subsamples of the population were identified. The inter-rater reliability group was videotaped and scored independently by 2 pharmacists. The test–retest reliability group was tested with the SMAT and was retested with the same tool a week later. The usability group was interviewed after using the SMAT to determine their satisfaction. Standard neuropsychological measures (Cognitive Competency Test, clock-drawing test, and Mini Mental State Examination [MMSE]) were used to determine convergent and divergent validity. Pill counts, refill rates, and use of adherence aids or reminders before study enrolment were used as measures of concurrent validity.

Results:

A total of 121 patients (mean age 81.5 years) were enrolled. The scales of the SMAT were determined to have good internal consistency and high inter-rater and test–retest reliability. Convergent validity was evidenced by the high positive correlation between the functional scale of the SMAT and the results of the clock-drawing and Cognitive Competency tests (p < 0.01) and between the cognitive and recall scales of the SMAT and the results of the clock-drawing test (p < 0.05), the MMSE (p < 0.01), and the Cognitive Competency Test (p < 0.01). Patients reported being highly satisfied with their experience.

Conclusion:

The SMAT is a practical, reliable, comprehensive instrument with demonstrated convergent validity, strong patient acceptability, and various internally consistent scales that assess multiple dimensions of elderly patients’ ability to self-manage their medications. Further testing is required to show that the SMAT correlates with medication adherence.     

药学监护技能评估标准的建立及在教学中的应用

目的: 构建药学监护技能评分标准并探索其在教学中的应用。方法: 基于药物治疗管理工作步骤,建立课程教学的评分标准,并采用专家咨询法对评分标准进行修订。对62名临床药学专业学生进行药学监护相关案例演练,按照评分标准对学生药学监护能力进行评估。结果: 从采集信息、药物治疗问题、拟定和执行药物监护计划、执业记录4个方面建立了评分标准。案例演练结果显示学生在药物治疗问题部分表现最佳(得分率为75.91%±12.76%),其次是采集信息和拟定和执行药学监护计划部分(得分率分别为72.45%±10.70%,71.02%±9.80%),在执业记录部分表现最差(62.50%±6.57%)。各部分的难度系数为0.63~0.76。结论: 评分标准能切实反映学生药学监护能力的具体情况,有助于改进教学手段,可作为药学监护教学的重要教学工具,并为其他高校药学监护教育评估提供参考。     

基于老年综合评估的个体化康复训练对阿尔茨海默病 患者认知功能、风险防范的影响

目的 构建基于阿尔茨海默病（AD）患者老年综合评估（CGA）的个体化康复训练干预模式,并从认知功 能、风险防范等角度进行成效分析。方法 采用前瞻性随机对照研究,选取220例 AD患者为研究对象,按照随机数 字表法将患者均分为对照组（110例）和观察组（110例）。对照组给予常规药物治疗及康复训练,观察组增加基于 CGA 的个体化康复训练干预。比较 2 组干预前、干预 3 个月后的认知功能［阿尔茨海默病痴呆评定量表（ADASCog）、简易精神状态量表（MMSE）］,风险防范［美国约翰霍普金斯跌倒量表（JHFRAT）、激越行为量表（CMAI）］,心境 状态［心境状态量表（POMS）］,躯体功能［Berg平衡量表（BBS）、Barthel指数评定量表（BI）］变化。结果 干预3个月 后,观察组患者ADAS-Cog、JHFRAT、CMAI量表评分显著降低,MMSE量表、BBS量表评分显著升高（P＜0.01）,对照 组干预前后比较无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。干预3个月后,2组患者POMS量表活动-好动分量表、BI量表评分显著升 高（P＜0.01）,而POMS量表中紧张-焦虑、忧郁-沮丧、愤怒-敌意、疲惫-惰性、困惑-迷惑分量表评分显著降低（P＜ 0.01）,观察组变化更明显（P＜0.01）。结论 基于CGA的个体化康复训练干预AD患者,可对其认知功能、跌倒风险、 激越行为、心境状态、躯体功能等方面产生积极影响,是一种值得推广的模式。     

老年住院患者用药错误的干预与分析

目的 探讨临床药师在老年住院患者用药监护与用药错误干预中发挥的作用。方法 对2015年5月至2016年4月的702例老年住院慢病患者进行住院期间的合理用药指导,并针对用药错误干预进行分析和总结。结果 临床药师干预用药错误人数比例达41.32%,干预用药错误625次,经干预后用药正确人数比例提升到90.63%,所干预用药错误类型出现较多的依次是：用药时间/时机错误（36.64%）、患者不按规定用药（23.68%）和给药技术错误（14.56%）。结论 临床药师在用药监护与干预用药错误的过程中可提出合理的用药建议和指导,减少用药错误,提高药物治疗效果。     

Anonymous Peer Assessment of Medication Management Reviews

Objectives

To investigate whether pharmacy students'' anonymous peer assessment of a medication management review (MMR) was constructive, consistent with the feedback provided by an expert tutor, and enhanced the students'' learning experience.

Design

Fourth-year undergraduate pharmacy students were randomly and anonymously assigned to a partner and participated in an online peer assessment of their partner''s MMR.

Assessment

An independent expert graded a randomly selected sample of the MMR''s using a schedule developed for the study. A second expert evaluated the quality of the peer and expert feedback. Students also completed a questionnaire and participated in a focus group interview. Student peers gave significantly higher marks than an expert for the same MMR; however, no significant difference between the quality of written feedback between the students and expert was detected. The majority of students agreed that this activity was a useful learning experience.

Conclusions

Anonymous peer assessment is an effective means of providing additional constructive feedback on student performance on the medication review process. Exposure to other students'' work and the giving and receiving of peer feedback were perceived as valuable by students.     

老年综合评估在老年弥漫大B细胞淋巴瘤治疗中的价值

目的　探讨老年综合评估（CGA）在老年弥漫大B细胞淋巴瘤（DLBCL）治疗中的应用价值。方法　本试验选取2015年１月至2017年12月在上海市松江区中心医院肿瘤血液科治疗的70例年龄≥65岁的DLBCL患者为研究对象,根据CGA标准将患者分为适合组、不适合组和脆弱组。分析3组患者临床资料与治疗疗效、预后和不良反应的相关性。采用卡方、Fisher精确概率法及秩和检验,生存分析采用Kaplan-Meier法,曲线间的比较采用log-rank检验。结果　70例患者,男39例、女31例,中位年龄69岁（65～89岁）。根据CAG分组标准,适合组35例（50.0%,35/70）、不适合组13例（18.6%,13/70）、脆弱组22例（31.4%,22/70）。与适合组、不适合组比较,脆弱组患者体力状况更差（ECOG评分）、淋巴瘤国际预后指数（IPI）评分高中危-高危组患者比例更高,差异有统计学意义（χ²=38.859、13.638,均P<0.01）。适合组、不适合组和脆弱组患者化疗有效率分别为100.0%（35/35）、100.0%（13/13）和36.4%（8/22）,差异有统计学意义（χ²=38.182,P<0.01）。在3组患者中,≥3级血液学和非血液学不良反应差异均无统计学意义。随访2年,适合组、不适合组和脆弱组患者2年无进展生存（PFS）率分别为57.1%（20/35）、46.2%（6/13）、18.2%（4/22）,差异有统计学意义（χ²=22.919,P<0.01）;在不适合组中,接受标准剂量化疗和低剂量化疗患者的化疗有效率和2年PFS比较,差异均无统计学意义。结论　CGA能更为全面地评估老年DLBCL患者身体状况,能有效预测治疗疗效、预后,对治疗决策有指导意义。     

药物治疗管理对不同年龄段女性抑郁症患者效果的分层随机对照研究

目的 评估实施药物治疗管理(medication therapy management,MTM)对女性抑郁症患者症状改善及用药依从性的影响,探讨不同年龄段女性患者的抑郁严重程度及依从性特点。方法 选取2022年2—7月就诊的女性抑郁症患者180例,根据不同年龄段和抑郁程度分层随机分为对照组和管理组各90例。对照组给予常规诊疗,管理组在常规诊疗基础上实施MTM。分别于入组时及3个月后采用Zung抑郁自评量表(self-rating depression scale,SDS)评估2组患者的抑郁症状,分别于入组4,8,12周末采用MMAS-8量表比较2组患者的依从性差异,并根据分层因素进行亚组分析。结果 147例患者完成所有的测评和随访,对照组和管理组脱落率差异无统计学意义(χ²=3.006,P=0.083),不同抑郁严重程度脱落者与未脱落者比较,差异具有统计学意义(χ²=13.927,P=0.001)。不同年龄段SDS评分比较：治疗前、后均以青春期最高、更年期次之、育龄期最低,差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05)。管理组和对照组SDS评分比较：管理组不同年龄段各亚组以及不同严重程度各亚组的SDS评分均低于对照组相应组别,除更年期亚组及轻度亚组外,差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05)。176例患者依从性总体评分为(5.69±1.37)分。不同年龄段依从性特点：全程评估育龄期最高,青春期次之,更年期最低,差异有统计学意义(χ²=6.61,P=0.037)。管理组和对照组依从性评分比较：3个年龄段管理组依从性评分均高于相应对照组,全程评估青春期(χ²=25.573,P＜0.001),育龄期(χ²=7.772,P=0.005),更年期(χ²=19.776,P＜0.001),差异均有统计学意义;除育龄期在第1次和第2次随访外,3个年龄段3次随访管理组和对照组差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05)。结论 女性抑郁症患者不同年龄段的严重程度存在差异,以青春期最重、育龄期最轻;用药依从性水平整体较低,以育龄期最高,更年期最低。MTM能有效促进不同年龄段女性患者抑郁症状改善及依从性提升。     

The effect of admission to a geriatric ward on medication use: 2002 versus 1985

PURPOSE: To investigate the changes in pharmacotherapy of patients during and after admission to a geriatric ward in 2002 and to investigate if this goes along with reduction of drugs. To describe the differences of the admitted patients and their medication in 2002 compared to 1985. METHODS: Included patients were admitted to the geriatric ward of a general hospital in the Netherlands during 2002 (n = 258, mean age 84.2 years). Medication at admission, during admission and at discharge were described after retrospective reviewing of medical charts. A comparable study was performed at the same ward in 1985. RESULTS: In 2002, most frequently used medication at admission was acetylsalicylic acid (30.2%). Pantoprazole was during admission used in 38.8% of patients and at discharge in 31.8%. Folic acid that was at admission used by 11.6% of patients was at discharge increased to 23.4%. At discharge, vitamin D was used in 21.5% of patients, whereas lisinopril was used in 17.8% of patients. Both in 1985 and 2002 vitamins were added and use of antibiotics was increased during admission. A mean addition of 1.0 drug in 1985 and of 0.7 drugs in 2002 was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Geriatric hospital admission resulted both in 1985 and 2002 in addition of medication. In both periods reductions in medication were nullified by addition of medication for reason of therapy optimisation. Compared to 1985 admitted patients receive more medication resulting from new insights into pharmacotherapy and more use of preventive medicine.     

Design and validation of a medication assessment tool for cancer pain management

Objective A clinical tool to examine prescribing in cancer pain management may provide a means to help establish acceptable standards of adherence to treatment guidelines. The study aim was to design and validate a Medication Assessment Tool for Cancer Pain Management (MAT-CP). Setting Hospitals in Northern Norway Method The MAT-CP was designed from guideline criteria based on a previously developed method. The tool was validated by peer review before and during field-testing on a study sample of cancer patients experiencing pain. Main outcome measure Perceived relevance, utility, and clarity of individual criteria, and reliability of their application to clinical documentation. Frequency of adherence to agreed definitions of guideline criteria. Results The final tool comprised 36 criteria covering six different aspects of cancer pain management: (1) pain assessment and information transfer, (2) start of strong opioid therapy; (3) current continuous analgesia; (4) current intermittent analgesia; (5) follow-up of therapy, and; (6) other care issues. The tool was tested on 109 cancer patients experiencing pain (57 males), mean (SD) age 60.8 (11.5) years. Guideline adherence overall was 61% (n = 1704 applicable criteria). The field-testing informed the modification of the MAT-CP to optimise its clarity and utility when applied to patients’ clinical documentation. Good inter- and intra-rater reliability (Cohen’s kappa κ = 0.86 and κ = 0.95, respectively) were demonstrated in the application. The preliminary application of the tool during field-testing has highlighted the following for further study: (a) Low adherence (<50%) to 14 standards concerning start of opioid treatment and pain therapy follow-up, clinical assessment of risk of gastro-intestinal adverse effects among patients on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), current treatment of breakthrough pain, management of nausea/vomiting; (b) High adherence (>75%) to standards of prescribing of continuous analgesia. Conclusion A clinical tool to examine prescribing in cancer pain management has been designed. Face and content validity have been informed by field-testing. The tool requires further study among palliative care specialists as part of the validation required before it can be recommended for clinical use.     

Provision of medication therapy management to university faculty and staff members by third-year pharmacy students

Objective

To develop and implement a medication therapy management (MTM) curriculum and assess students'' skills and attitudes after the provision of MTM services to faculty and staff members.

Design

Third-year students enrolled in a pharmaceutical care laboratory course received lectures and participated in MTM activities in preparation for an MTM encounter. Students conduced MTM sessions with university faculty and staff members, providing comprehensive medication review, blood pressure checks, and optional blood glucose and cholesterol (total cholesterol and HDL) screenings.

Assessment

A faculty-developed rubric was used to evaluate students'' ability to explain MTM to the participant and address medication-related problems. Students'' responses on pre- and post-encounter survey instruments showed their confidence to provide MTM services, communicate with participants and other health care providers, and provide point-of-care screening services had increased.

Conclusion

Incorporating MTM into an existing laboratory course increased students'' confidence and perceived ability to provide MTM services.     

Validation and application of a death proxy in adult cancer patients

PURPOSE: Fact of death is not always available on data sets used for pharmacoepidemiological research. Proxies may be an appropriate substitute in the absence of death data. The purposes of this study were to validate a proxy for death in adult cancer patients and to assess its performance when estimating survival in two cohorts of cancer patients. METHODS: We evaluated 30-, 60-, 90- and 180-day proxies overall and by cancer type using data from 12 394 Australian veterans with lung, colorectal, breast or prostate cancer. The proxy indicated death if the difference between the last dispensing record and the end of the observational period exceeded the proxy cutoff. We then compared actual survival to 90-day proxy estimates in a subset of 4090 veterans with 'full entitlements' for pharmaceutical items and in 3704 Australian women receiving trastuzumab for HER2+ metastatic breast cancer. RESULTS: The 90-day proxy was optimal with an overall sensitivity of 99.3% (95%CI: 98.4-99.7) and a specificity of 97.6% (95%CI: 91.8-99.4). These measures remained high when evaluated by cancer type and spread of disease. The application of the proxy using the most conservative date of death estimate (date of last dispensing) generally underestimated survival, with estimates up to 3?months shorter than survival based on fact of death. CONCLUSIONS: A 90-day death proxy is a robust substitute to identify death in a chronic population when fact of death is not available. The proxy is likely to be valid across a range of chronic diseases as it relies on the presence of 'regular' dispensing records for individual patients. Copyright ? 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of self-medication practice and the potential to use a mobile app to ensure safe and effective self-medication among the public in Saudi Arabia

BackgroundSelf-medication (SM) plays an essential role in maintaining a good quality of life for individuals. Previous studies suggested that efforts are still needed to ensure the safe practice of SM. The advances in technology and the internet have granted the availability of abundant and easily accessed medication information. However, identifying the reliability of information could be a challenge for the public. This study aimed to investigate the attitude toward SM, determinants of SM, and knowledge about medication in Saudi Arabia. Also, this study aimed to assess the willingness to use a mobile app that would be specifically designed to guide the practice of SM.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in a form of an online survey among the public in Saudi Arabia. QuestionPro® platform was utilized to collect data from respondents for two months. Statistical analysis was performed using IBM® SPSS® statistics version 26.ResultsA total of 1226 individuals completed the questionnaire. The prevalence of SM practice was 59%. The most frequent reason for not practicing SM was the concern about the drug safety issues (38%). Significant statistical associations were identified between SM and several demographic variables, e.g., age, gender, education, health insurance, and having a chronic illness. Most respondents (82.7%) were aware of the necessity of improving SM practice. Knowledge about different aspects of SM (e.g., proper drug selection and administration) was evaluated based on the consumer’s perspective. Our data showed that overall knowledge about SM was limited for many consumers. The assessment of the participant’s willingness to use a SM app indicated that 47.6% were interested in using such app. This willingness was significantly associated with the consumer’s attitude toward SM and being a chronically ill patient.ConclusionSM is a common practice in Saudi Arabia. However, public awareness about SM is limited. So, implementing new strategies to enhance knowledge and ensure the safety of SM is important. A large proportion of participants were interested to use a SM app, which would improve SM practice. Therefore, we recommend developing a SM-oriented app to be used by the public in Saudi Arabia.     

Development of a personalized bidirectional text messaging tool for HIV adherence assessment and intervention among substance abusers

We describe the development of a two-way text messaging intervention tool for substance users who are non-adherent with HIV medications, and examine message flow data for feasibility and acceptability. The assessment and intervention tool, TxText, is fully automated, sending participants mood, substance use, and medication adherence queries by text message. Participants respond, the tool recognizes the category of response, and sends the personalized intervention message that participants designed in return. In 10 months, the tool sent 16,547 messages (half initial, half follow-up) to 31 participants assigned to the TxText condition, who sent 6711 messages in response to the initial messages. Response rates to substance use (n = 2370), medication (n = 2918) and mood (n = 4639) queries were 67, 69, and 64%, respectively. Responses indicating medication adherence, abstinence from substances, and good moods were more common than negative responses. The TxText tool can send messages daily over a 3 month period, receive responses, and decode them to deliver personalized affirming or intervention messages. While we await the outcomes of a pilot randomized trial, the process analysis shows that TxText is acceptable and feasible for substance abusers with HIV, and may serve as a complement to HIV medical care.     

Assessment of anticoagulation management in a simulated ambulatory care clinic

Objectives

To assess the effectiveness of adding a simulated anticoagulation clinic practical examination for formal assessment of PharmD students'' skills.

Design

A practical examination requiring students to review a mock medical record and role-play a follow-up anticoagulation clinic visit with a standardized patient was designed. Students assessed the patient''s vital signs, laboratory values, and subjective complaints during an in-depth interview and documented clinical recommendations in a progress note.

Assessment

Student feedback indicated that the simulated clinic was pertinent to preparation for experiential rotations. Ninety-five percent of the students recommended that it be continued as a required component of the course.

Conclusion

The simulated ambulatory care clinic exercise reinforces principles of anticoagulation management as well as the assessment of clinical data, performance of a patient interview, and written documentation of recommendations.