Pharmacy education in Cuba

Background In Cuba, as in other countries around the world, professional pharmacy has moved from a product orientation (dispensing medications) to a focus on the patient. Aim To provide an overview of the current status of pharmacy education in Cuba. Methods Research was conducted on the historical records of the curriculums used in pharmacy education in Cuba. Results All programs require a minimum of 5 years of postsecondary education prior to attainment of the Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy degree, which is currently the entry-level degree for the profession. The main change currently affecting practice of and education in pharmacy in Cuba is the introduction of pharmaceutical care concept. Conclusions All University Schools of Pharmacy are formally involved in the continuing professional development of practitioners as an important part of the educational life cycle for pharmacists.     

美国药师培养体系的启示

以美国匹兹堡大学药学院Pharm D学位教育为例,评述美国药学服务型人才的学位设置、培养目标、课程设计、教学方法以及师资队伍建设等药师的培养体系及模式。审视我国当前药学教育的现状与执业药师转型发展,提出借鉴国外药学教育的成功模式和经验,推进我国高等药学职业教育,从人才培养源头提高我国执业药师的素质与能力。     

Clinical Pharmacy Education in China

Pharmacy education in China focuses on pharmaceutical sciences, with the bachelor of science (BS) of pharmacy as the entry-level degree. Pharmacy practice curricula in these programs are centered on compounding, dispensing, pharmacy administration, and laboratory experiences, which are the traditional responsibilities for pharmacists. Additional graduate-level training is available at the master of science (MS) and the doctor of philosophy (PhD) levels, most of which concentrate on drug discovery and drug development research. Presently, the emphasis in practice is beginning to shift to clinical pharmacy. With this change, additional degree offerings are being developed to meet the growing demand for clinical pharmacists. There is also interest in developing more clinical skills in practicing pharmacists through additional non-degree training. The Ministry of Education is considering a proposal for an entry-level professional degree of master and/or doctor in clinical pharmacy similar to the doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) degree in the United States.     

The influence of pharmacy education on students' moral development at a school of pharmacy in the USA

Objectives The aim was to assess the relationship between moral development and pharmacy education at a small, private pharmacy school located in the south‐eastern region of the USA. Corollary objectives were to assess the impact, if any, of gender, age and grade point average on moral development. Methods Seventy‐one pharmacy students' moral reasoning was assessed during a 2‐week orientation before the beginning of first‐year classes in August 2006, and again after finishing didactic requirements for the Doctor of Pharmacy degree (PharmD) at the University of Charleston School of Pharmacy in April 2009. Key findings A paired t‐test revealed that significant growth in moral reasoning occurred during their didactic pharmacy education. The class mean N2% score in August 2006 was 38.68 compared with 42.32 in April 2009 (P < 0.01). Based on independent t‐tests and Pearson correlations, there were no significant differences in the sample between age and N2% score, and between grade point average and N2% score. Conclusions The findings reveal that the students at University of Charleston School of Pharmacy experienced significant moral growth during the three didactic years of the pharmacy curriculum. As concluded in previous studies within the health professions, females scored significantly higher than males on moral reasoning in both the first and second assessment.     

Pharmacy from the perspectives of other health professions: An intervention to foster professional identity among freshmen pharmacy students

BackgroundProfessional identity is crucial for the development of pharmacy students’ professional confidence, learning motivation and future career choices. However, how to develop students’ professional identity in pharmacy education is an underdeveloped field of research. The critical component of professional identity has been considered formed as a result of stepwise socialization. Therefore, pharmacy professional identity might be influenced by associations with other health care professionals, such as physicians and nurses, who are involved in health care collaboration with pharmacists.ObjectivesThis work aimed to investigate the effect of a student-led interview intervention called “Pharmacy from the perspectives of other health professions” as an intervention on pharmacy freshmen’s perceptions and positivity toward the pharmacy profession.MethodsIn this prospective pre/postintervention study, the effect of the interview intervention on students’ job preferences as well as attitudes toward the pharmacy profession and pharmacists’ role in health care was evaluated among 70 first-year pharmacy undergraduates equally divided into intervention and control groups using a self-developed questionnaire.ResultsCompared with the controls, the numbers of respondents reporting no specific reasons for selecting the pharmacy profession and stating that they were unclear about their preferred post-graduation work sector were significantly reduced after the intervention. Participating in the intervention increased the number of students who agreed or strongly agreed that they would have a fulfilling and socially respectable career. Significantly more students in the intervention group agreed with the pharmacists’ role in health care as well as the current situation of pharmacy human resources than in the control group.ConclusionThis student-led interview intervention could be applied as an effective tool for improving students’ professional identity and positivity in pharmacy education.     

专业学位水平评估视角下药学硕士培养体系优化

专业学位水平评估是提升专业学位研究生培养质量的重要手段,对学位授权点围绕专业学位教育应用性、实践性等特点完善人才培养体系有指导性意义。从培养目标契合度、师资队伍支撑度、培养过程匹配度、职业需求吻合度、社会满意度、质量保障体系有效度六个维度对专业学位评估指标进行解读。在此基础上,建议药学硕士的培养应在工业药学、临床药学、管理药学三个领域分别聚焦,构建人才培养方案,打造专业化的导师队伍,开展案例教学与实践基地建设,重视学位论文实践意义,完善人才培养质量保障体系建设,最终实现药学硕士专业学位教育与制药工程师、临床药师等职业人才有机衔接,促进医药行业发展。     

Professional ethics in pharmacy practice: developing a psychometric measure of moral reasoning

Objective To develop and validate a psychometric measure of cognitive moral development in professional ethics in pharmacy. Setting Pharmacy practice in Australia. Method A psychometric instrument, the Professional Ethics in Pharmacy (PEP) test, was developed and validated following a systematic procedure. The theoretical foundation of the instrument was based on a hypothesised theory of cognitive moral development in professional ethics, which was integrated into a selection of scenarios experienced in practice by pharmacists in NSW, Australia. The PEP, along with the well established DIT test, was mailed in the form of a questionnaire to a randomly selected sample of 1,500 practising pharmacists. Data collected from returned questionnaires were statistically analysed to establish validity and reliability of the instrument. Main outcome measures The P-score calculated for each participant from DIT and PEP data and defined as a measure of principled moral reasoning, represented the main outcome measure for statistical testing. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to determine the strength of the relationship of the PEP with the DIT (regarded as the “gold standard”) in order to establish criterion and concurrent validity. Factor analysis was used to investigate construct validity. Cronbach’s Alpha, a measure of reliability of the instrument, was used for indicating internal consistency. Linear regression models further investigated construct validity in relation to predictors of moral reasoning. Results Face and content validity were established by pilot and peer review. Pearson’s coefficient of 0.53 indicated an acceptable level of concurrent validity. Factor analysis yielded factors closely related to the theoretical stages of cognitive moral development hypothesised, which indicated construct validity. Cronbach’s alpha of 0.75 demonstrated the reliability of the instrument, and linear regression models provided further evidence of construct validity. The PEP was established as a robust instrument on several dimensions of validity and reliability. Conclusion The validated PEP test has the potential to provide the pharmacy profession with valuable information for use education and research. The validation process also provided evidence supporting the hypothesis that moral reasoning in professional ethics in pharmacy is a developmental process, which has profound implications for furthering the understanding of professional behaviour.     

Investigations and feedback on the training mode of professional master’s degree of clinical pharmacy in Peking University and the preliminary exploration of Pharm. D. Education

In order to carry out the comprehensive reform of the professional master’s degree training mode of clinical pharmacy, we carried out interviews among 91 persons on the professional master's degree of clinical pharmacy in Peking University School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and collected extensive feedback. We preliminaries explore the mode of Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.) Education, laying the foundation for Doctor’s education of professional clinical pharmacy in China. We conducted investigations and interviews among 91 clinical pharmacists and students of Peking University School of Pharmaceutical Sciences on the training of professional master’s degree and Pharm. D. education mode, which includes 67 postgraduates and 24 clinical pharmacists. Respondents put forward the problems of training mode and corresponding suggestions and opinions from different aspects during the investigation and interview. The results mainly divide into four aspects: curriculum setting, clinical practice, assessment system and teaching resources. Respondents put forward effective feedback on the above four aspects, which are beneficial to the comprehensive reform of the training mode of professional master degree in clinical pharmacy and preliminary exploration of Pharm. D. Education in China.     

Wicked Problems in Pharmacy Education

Wicked problems are unstructured, cross-cutting, and relentless. While problem-solving is an expected outcome of pharmacy education programs, are we, as pharmacy educators, acknowledging the “wicked” problems we have in the Academy? This commentary provides examples of wicked problems in pharmacy practice and education and suggestions for engaging with wicked problems in an effort to solve them. Pharmacy educators must hold a summit on wicked problems in pharmacy education in order to address the complex problems we are currently facing in order to shape the profession for the future.     

临床药师培训对专业型临床药学硕士培养的启示

目的：分析我国开展临床药师培训的具体情况,为专业型临床药学硕士培养提供思路。方法：搜索CNKI、万方、维普数据库,查询我国临床药师培训相关文献,分析临床药师培训与临床药学专业硕士培养的比较优势。结果：专业型临床药学硕士的培养应设置与临床实践密切结合的课程,同时须布置药学实践作业。考核内容应侧重于临床,注重过程考核。结论：临床药师的基本功是医嘱审核、用药教育、药物不良反应判断等,一切工作都应围绕临床,以患者为中心。在学习期间,专业型临床药学硕士更应着重锻炼这些基本功。只有这样,才能为今后参与临床治疗团队、提供药学服务、缩短执业过渡期打好基础。     

药学生专业素质的培养

高等药学教育的一个主要任务就是培养学生的专业素质。结合药学本身的学科特点和发展趋势，指出药学教育在培养目标和人才规格上，正在由单一的“学院型”、“药学型”向“应用型”、“医学药学结合型”、“复合型’’转变。在此基础上，讨论了药学生应该具备的专业素质以及培养途径。     

Obligations of Investigators in Clinical Research a Pharmacist's Perspective

Abstract

The Department of Pharmacy Practice at the University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Pharmacy currently employs 40 fulltime clinical pharmacists who have minimal drug distribution responsibilities and provide pharmacy services to a specific patient care team and are involved with the education of pharmacy and medical students. In addition, these clinical pharmacists have collaborated in the clinical research activities of the medical and surgical staffs at the University of Illinois, Since many of these pharmacists have gain recognition as primary and co-investigators by various study sponsors, the Department of Pharmacy Practice has developed a program to inform each clinical pharmacist of his/her responsibilities as a clinical investigator. The following document summarizes the Department's policies and procedures.     

The effects of pharmacy commitment on the development of job satisfaction and organisational commitment

Objective — To determine how professional commitment at the time of graduation affects the later development of professional commitment, job satisfaction and organisational commitment in pharmacy graduates. Method — Sixty‐one pharmacy students at Prince of Songkla university, Thailand, completed a first survey questionnaire administered two weeks before graduation and a second survey questionnaire eight months after graduation. Results — At eight months after graduation, the level of professional commitment remained unchanged. Professional commitment at graduation was the strongest predictor of professional commitment eight months later. It was also a predictor of job satisfaction. However, its effect on job satisfaction was less than those of skill utilisation and satisfaction with workload. Professional commitment at graduation did not emerge as a significant predictor for organisational commitment, when several job factors were controlled. Conclusion — Pharmacy commitment developed from schools seems to be stable at eight months after graduation. It is less influential than job factors in the formation of organisational commitment and job satisfaction.     

A summer pharmacy camp for high school students as a pharmacy student recruitment tool

Objective. To determine the effectiveness of a summer pharmacy camp on participants’ pursuit of enrollment in doctor of pharmacy degree programs.Methods. All participants (n = 135) in a pharmacy camp at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) College of Pharmacy from 2007-2010 were invited to complete an anonymous online survey instrument.Results. Seventy-three students completed the survey instrument (54% response rate). Ninety-six percent of pharmacy camp participants said that they would recommend pharmacy camp to a friend, and 76% planned to apply or had applied to doctor of pharmacy degree program. Seven of the camp participants had enrolled in the UAMS College of Pharmacy.Conclusions. The pharmacy summer camp at UAMS is effective in maintaining high school students’ interest in the profession of pharmacy. Continued use of the pharmacy camp program as a recruitment tool is warranted; however, additional research on this topic is needed.     

Addressing the workforce crisis: the professional aspirations of pharmacy students in Ghana

Objective A lack of skilled health professionals, and net migration from developing to more developed countries, are widely recognised as barriers to the delivery of effective health care. However, few studies have investigated this issue from the perspective of pharmacists, although they are increasingly viewed as a potentially valuable and underexploited health care resource. The objectives of this study were to examine the professional aspirations and perceived opportunities of final year pharmacy students in a developing country; and consider what developments may encourage them to remain in, and contribute to, health care in their home country. Method Final year pharmacy students from the Faculty of Pharmacy, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana, were randomly selected and invited to participate in in-depth interviews. These were audio-recorded (with permission of respondents) and transcribed verbatim to enable a qualitative analysis. Main outcome measure: professional aspirations, and perceived opportunities and barriers to their achievement in Ghana and abroad. Results Participants viewed themselves, and wished to be viewed by others, as health professionals. They described a commitment to applying their clinical knowledge and to education beyond their first degree. However, they identified significant barriers to the achievement of professional aspirations in Ghana, which would diminish their opportunities to contribute to health care. Whilst most students expressed the expectation or desire to travel at some point, usually early, in their career, they all demonstrated a commitment to their country and stated a wish to return. Conclusion Overall the study highlighted prospective pharmacists in Ghana as ambitious, committed potential health professionals. The study indicates that a lack of attention by policy makers and professional bodies to ways of exploiting the contribution of pharmacists to public health, may represent a lost potential human resource for health in developing countries.     

Role of Pharmacy Education in Growing the Pharmacy Practice Model

The Director’s Forum series is designed to guide pharmacy leaders in establishing patient-centered services in hospitals and health systems. This article focuses on pharmacy academia’s (“Academy”) role in transforming an organization’s pharmacy practice model. Pharmacy students can assume an integrated and accountable role in the practice model by having defined responsibilities for patient care. This role will produce students who are best trained to meet the challenges of pharmacy practice and health care reform. To make the students successful in this role, the pharmacy director must have a specific plan for integrating pharmacy students into the model and establishing relationships with Academy leadership, most importantly with the dean of the school or college of pharmacy. If successfully executed, the relationship between the Academy and the pharmacy department will enhance the mission of developing patient-centered pharmacy services.Since 1960, costs of health care exceed the growth in the US gross domestic product (GDP) by an average of 2.5 percentage points per year.¹ This growth in health care expenses is not sustainable; recent health care reform requires insurance coverage for all people, which further strains the economic system. To address rising costs in most hospitals, pharmacy departments are being asked to improve their efficiency and effectiveness because medications represent almost 7% of a hospital’s expenses.² In addition, because of concerns with quality and safety in health care, pharmacists are being required to develop systems to prevent harm in health care (eg, preventing serious medication errors). The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists’ (ASHP) Pharmacy Practice Model Initiative (PPMI) was created to assist hospital pharmacy leaders in managing the consequences of limited resources and providing safer expanded services.Many stakeholders were engaged in creating the PPMI, and a critical component of the recommendations was pharmacy education. During the November 2010 meeting of the PPMI Summit, participants discussed the role of pharmacy education in advancing practice models. The Summit recommended that the pharmacy education academic community (“Academy”) prepare students for a contemporary role in drug therapy management.³ This role requires that the students have a grasp of skills in communication, clinical reasoning, time management, and the technical aspects of health-system pharmacy practice. Further, the PPMI suggested that the Academy implement curricular changes to prepare students for a larger (both integrated and accountable) role in health-system pharmacy practice.While the PPMI recommended changes in pharmacy curriculum to best prepare student, the Accreditation Council on Pharmacy Education (ACPE) also revised its standards to require expanded experiential education. The Introductory and Advanced Pharmacy Practices Experiences (IPPE, APPE) changed in 2010 to provide for a more aggressive introduction of students to pharmacy practice. These changes include increasing the number of required rotations for fourth-year students and increasing the students’ exposure in their first 3 professional years to both community and hospital practice.⁴The changes in the IPPE and APPE requirement have been met with some resistance; the logistics of providing expanded experiential education can be difficult given the limited pharmacy preceptor resources and training sites. We suggest that these requirements be used to further enhance the pharmacy practice model. Pharmacy directors should be planning for pharmacy students to be an integral and accountable part of the practice model.The goal of this article is to provide a framework for pharmacy directors to incorporate pharmacy students into their practice model. The article will discuss (1) the need for educating students in direct patient care activities, (2) examples of patient care roles filled by pharmacy students, (3) strategies for working with colleges or schools of pharmacy to enhance student engagement, (4) programs to integrate pharmacy students into patient care, and (5) keys to successful integration of pharmacy students into patient care. Transforming pharmacy students’ experiential education to an integrated and accountable role as part of a patient care team has many benefits for both the department and the student. It is yet another strategy for developing patient-centered services in the pharmacy department.     

Electronic Health Records in Pharmacy Skills-based Curricula

Electronic health records (EHRs) are integral to contemporary pharmacy practice. The use of EHRs and associated skill development in curricula across pharmacy education is variable. Skills-based courses in the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum are ideal areas to develop these competencies’ and integrate EHR use and skills with the Pharmacists’ Patient Care Process. Consideration should be given by each school and college of pharmacy for having an EHR curriculum embedded within skills-based courses to prepare students for advanced pharmacy practice experiences as well as professional practice after graduation. A consensus on what skills or competencies should be consistently included in pharmacy curricula should be developed across pharmacy education to increase consistency in the delivery of EHR skills education and assessment. Emphasis on EHR skills and incorporation of them into national pharmacy education standards would help further guide development and assessment, as well as ensure new pharmacists are on the cutting edge of patient care and technology.     

An Assessment of Recent Pharmacy Graduates' Knowledge and Competency,Professional Practice Functions,and Involvement in Pharmacy Teaching Programs

Study Objectives . To determine self-evaluated professional knowledge and competency, functions, demographic information, lifelong learning, degree and training status, practice sites, involvement in pharmacy teaching programs, and salary for recent pharmacy graduates. Design . A survey of recent Bachelor of Science (B.S.) pharmacy graduates of the University of Wisconsin School of Pharmacy. Measurements and Main Results . A total of 371 B.S. pharmacy graduates (55% response rate) provided information. Graduates who had an advanced degree or training (from many programs) after completing their B.S. pharmacy degree, and those who were teaching in pharmacy programs generally had higher self-rated levels of knowledge and competencies. Hospital pharmacists spent less of their work time in dispensing activities (33.82% ± 30.39%) than community pharmacists (61.04% ± 19.97%; t =8.78, df = 288, p<0.001); community pharmacists spent twice as much of their work time counseling and educating patients (16.65% ± 10.47% vs 7.13% ± 7.39%; t = 9.06, df = 288, p<0.001). The amount of time pharmacists spent in dispensing functions had a negative association with knowledge and competencies in the sections on pharmacokinetic and disease process (r=−0.277, p<0.01), patient communications (r=−0.272, p<0.01), and administrative and economic aspects of practice (r=−0.210, p<0.01) for all respondents. Pharmacists reported that they spent 13.78 ± 14.06 hours per month outside work in professional lifelong learning. There was a negative association between the time pharmacists spent dispensing and the time they spent in professional lifelong learning (r=−0.239, p<0.001), and a positive relationship between the time spent in such learning and the time providing information to prescribers and other health care professionals (r=0.214, p<0.001), monitoring patients (r=0.216, p<0.001), and performing primary care activities (r=0.176, p<0.001). Graduates reported a mean yearly salary of $46,879 ± $8183. More hospital pharmacists were involved in teaching (48, 37%) than those practicing in a community setting (19, 12%). Conclusions . Practice site, advanced degree or training, lifelong learning, involvement in teaching programs, and time spent in various professional functions were associated with pharmacists' self-rated knowledge and competencies. (Pharmacotherapy 1994;14(6):712–723)