Feeding infant piglets formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as triacylglycerols or phospholipids influences the distribution of these fatty acids in plasma lipoprotein fractions

Several sources of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) are currently available for infant formula supplementation. These oils differ in their fatty acid composition, the chemical form of the fatty acid esters [triacylglycerols (TG) or phospholipids (PL)] and presence of other lipid components. These differences may affect LCP absorption, distribution and metabolic fate after ingestion. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the influence of different chemical forms of dietary LCP on the composition of plasma, plasma lipoproteins, liver and jejunum in infant piglets. Thirty pigs (5 d old) were bottle-fed different diets for 4 wk: a control diet (C), a diet containing LCP as TG from tuna and fungal oils (TF-TG) or a diet containing LCP as PL from egg yolk (E-PL). We measured lipid and fatty acid composition of plasma and lipoproteins, as well as lipid composition of liver and intestinal mucosa. The arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids in HDL-PL were significantly higher in piglets fed the E-PL diet than in those fed the TF-TG diet. Opposite results were found in the LDL-PL diet. No significant differences were found between groups in TG or cholesterol concentrations of plasma or lipoproteins. Arachidonic acid in plasma PL and cholesteryl esters was significantly higher in the E-PL group than in the TF-TG group. The chemical form in which LCP esters are present in different dietary sources influences their distribution in plasma lipoproteins. This may be important for infant nutrition and suggests that not all LCP sources may be biologically equivalent.     

Characteristic chromatographic fingerprint study of short-chain fatty acids in human milk,infant formula,pure milk and fermented milk by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Human milk, infant formula, pure milk and fermented milk as food products or dietary supplements provide a range of nutrients required to both infants and adults. Recently, a growing body of evidence has revealed the beneficial roles of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), a subset of fatty acids produced from the fermentation of dietary fibers by gut microbiota. The objective of this study was to establish a chromatographic fingerprint technique to investigate SCFAs in human milk and dairy products by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The multivariate method for principal component analysis assessed differences between milk types. Human milk, infant formula, pure milk and fermented milk were grouped independently, mainly because of differences in formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and hexanoic acid levels. This method will be important for the assessment of SCFAs in human milk and various dairy products.     

Plasma vitamin A and E in preterm babies fed on breast milk or formula milk with or without long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

Plasma vitamin A and E, the antioxidant nutrients copper and zinc, and magnesium were investigated in preterm babies. They were fed on their own mother's breast milk, or a formula with, or without, AA and DHA. Vitamin A (2.4 mg/d) and E (15 mg/d) supplements were also given. Vitamin A and E levels of most of the babies were sub-optimal at birth. The mean concentrations of vitamin E increased in all the groups by the expected date of delivery (EDD) (p < 0.001). Those fed on their mother's breast milk had the highest value compared with the other groups (p < 0.001). There was an increase in the mean level of vitamin A (p > 0.05) and copper (p < 0.05) and a decrease in zinc (p < 0.05) between birth and EDD. Concentrations of the two vitamins were not different (p > 0.05) between the babies fed on the formula with, and without, AA and DHA. It is concluded that the amount of AA and DHA incorporated in the formula milk did not adversely influence the plasma vitamin A and E of the babies.     

Plasma and red blood cell fatty acids of low-birth-weight infants fed their mother's expressed breast milk or preterm-infant formula

The fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids, red blood cell (RBC) phosphatidylcholine (PC), and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) was determined for low-birth-weight (LBW) infants when full oral feeding commenced (day 0) and after a further 28 d (day 28). They were fed their mother's expressed breast milk (PTM, n = 9), formula (SCF, n = 16) with 2% 18:3n-3 fatty acids, 20% 18:2n-6 fatty acids, or a combination of SCF and PTM (n = 11). Concentrations of all 20- and 22-carbon n-6 and n-3 fatty acids were similar among the infant groups on days 0 and 28 (mean postnatal age 42 +/- 1.3 d). The results suggest that formula with greater than or equal to 2% 18:3n-3 and a ratio of 18:2n-6 to 18:3n-3 similar to that of human milk may permit incorporation of n-3 fatty acids in LBW infant tissues equivalent to that from human milk.     

Mammary lipogenic enzyme activity, trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids are altered in lactating dairy cows fed a milk fat-depressing diet

The objectives of the present study were to examine the effect of a milk fat-depressing (MFD) diet on: 1) the activity of mammary acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and fatty acid synthase (FAS), 2) ACC mRNA relative abundance and 3) distributions of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) and trans-18:1 fatty acids (tFA) in milk fat. Twelve lactating Holstein cows were used in a single reversal design. Two diets were fed: a control diet (60:40% forage/concentrate) and an MFD diet (25:70% forage/concentrate, supplemented with 5% soybean oil). The MFD diet decreased (P: < 0 0.001) milk fat by 43% and ACC and FAS activity by 61 and 44%, respectively. A reduced ACC mRNA relative abundance (P: < 0.001) corresponded with the lower ACC activity. The fatty acids synthesized de novo were decreased (P: < 0. 002), whereas tFA were increased from 1.9 to 15.6% due predominantly to a change in trans-10-18:1 isomer (P: < 0.001). With the MFD diet, the trans-7, cis-9 and trans-10, cis-12 CLA isomers were elevated (P: < 0.001), in contrast to the decrease in trans-11-18:1 (P: < 0. 001) and cis-9, trans-11-18:2. The data were consistent with a dietary effect on mammary de novo FA synthesis mediated through a reduction in ACC and FAS activity and in ACC mRNA abundance. The results were compatible with a role of trans-10, cis-12 CLA in milk fat depression, but alterations noted in tFA and other CLA isomers suggest that they also may be important during diet-induced milk fat depression.     

Concentrations of iron, copper and zinc in human milk and powdered infant formula

Concentrations of iron, copper and zinc were determined in 56 samples of mature human milk from Canarian women and 5 samples of powdered infant formula. According to the literature our data fall within the normal limits in each kind of milk. The mean concentration of Fe, Cu and Zn of powdered infant formula was significantly higher than those concentrations found in the human milks. Significant differences among the concentrations of the studied metals for the milks of considered mothers were observed. The Fe, Cu and Zn intakes of infants fed with human milk are lower than the requirements recommended by the Food and Nutrition Board (1989). However, the infants fed with powdered infant formula had consumed an adequate intake of Fe and Cu. A progressive decrease of the metal concentrations with the lactation stage was observed. The human milk obtained in spring presented Fe and Zn concentrations lower than in autumn, which could be due to changes in nutritional habits of the mothers. Age of mother and number of previous children seem to influence the Zn and Cu concentrations of human milk.     

Concentrations of iron,copper and zinc in human milk and powdered infant formula

Concentrations of iron, copper and zinc were determined in 56 samples of mature human milk from Canarian women and 5 samples of powdered infant formula. According to the literature our data fall within the normal limits in each kind of milk. The mean concentration of Fe, Cu and Zn of powdered infant formula was significantly higher than those concentrations found in the human milks. Significant differences among the concentrations of the studied metals for the milks of considered mothers were observed. The Fe, Cu and Zn intakes of infants fed with human milk are lower than the requirements recommended by the Food and Nutrition Board (1989). However, the infants fed with powdered infant formula had consumed an adequate intake of Fe and Cu. A progressive decrease of the metal concentrations with the lactation stage was observed. The human milk obtained in spring presented Fe and Zn concentrations lower than in autumn, which could be due to changes in nutritional habits of the mothers. Age of mother and number of previous children seem to influence the Zn and Cu concentrations of human milk.     

Lipophilic antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids in lipoprotein classes: distribution and interaction

OBJECTIVE: To study the lipoprotein distribution of supplemented coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), vitamin E, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). DESIGN: Balanced three-period crossover study. SETTING: University research unit. SUBJECTS: Eighteen apparently healthy free-living non-smoking volunteers (nine women, nine men), mean age 26 +/- 3 y, recruited among the university students; no dropouts. INTERVENTIONS: Three supplementation periods of 10 days: 100 mg/day CoQ10, 350 mg/day D-alpha-tocopherol, and 2 g/day concentrated fish oil. Fasting venous blood samples were collected twice before the first period and then after each period. Plasma and isolated lipoproteins were analysed for cholesterol, triacylglycerol, alpha- and gamma-tocopherol, CoQ10, and fatty acid composition. RESULTS: Significant (P < 0.05) increase in CoQ10 and alpha-tocopherol occurred in all lipoprotein classes after supplementation. CoQ10 was primarily incorporated into low-density lipoprotein (LDL). alpha-tocopherol and fish oil n-3 PUFAs had similar patterns. They were equally distributed between LDL and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), with a smaller part in VLDL. The total sum of PUFA was unchanged following all supplementations, but fish oil increased the amount of n-3 fatty acids at the expense of n-6 fatty acids. CONCLUSION: Lipoprotein distribution of CoQ10 is markedly different from that of alpha-tocopherol, suggesting that they may be metabolised by distinct routes. alpha-Tocopherol is distributed similarly to n-3 fatty acids, thus providing protection on location for the oxidatively labile PUFAs.     

The influence of the position of palmitate in infant formula triacylglycerols on health outcomes

The purpose of this review is to discuss recent studies reporting on the influence of the position of palmitic acid in triacylglycerols in infant formula and relevant animal studies. Earlier experiments in rodents show that a diet with a higher proportion of palmitate at the sn-2 position of triacylglycerols improves dietary fat and calcium absorption compared with a diet with a lower sn-2 palmitate content. A high–sn-2 palmitate diet increased fecal short-chain fatty acids, reduced gut inflammation in a colitis model, and altered tissue endocannabinoid concentrations in laboratory rodents. Recent studies in infants confirm that formula with a high sn-2 palmitate content reduces stool fat, palmitic acid, fat soaps, palmitate soaps, and calcium compared with formula with a low sn-2 palmitate content. These effects have been associated with improved bone strength, increased fecal bifidobacteria, and reduced crying in infants. In some studies, findings with formula high in sn-2 palmitate match those seen in breast-fed infants. However, in many studies, high sn-2 palmitate formula remains inferior to breast-feeding. It is concluded that infant formula high in sn-2 palmitate is superior to formula with low sn-2 palmitate but does not fully match human breast milk. Recent studies showing altered gut microbiota (human infants) and tissue endocannabinoids (rodent model) suggest the potential for marked physiological impact of high sn-2 palmitate that needs to be explored further in human trials.     

Plasma and red blood cell fatty acid composition in small for gestational age term infants fed human milk or formula

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of feeding human milk or milk formula on the fatty acid composition of plasma and red blood cell (RBC) lipids in at term small for gestational age infants (SGA) for the first 3 months of life. One group of infants received a formula with a linoleic:alpha-linolenic acid ratio of 10:1 (MF group). Another group served as control and received their own mother's milk (HM group). Blood samples were taken at birth and at 1 week, 4 weeks, and 3 months of life. Plasma and RBC fatty acid composition were analyzed by gas liquid chromatography and results of total plasma lipids were expressed as concentrations by adding an internal standard. Concentrations of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids increased in total plasma lipids with age in all infants. In contrast, those fatty acids decreased when results were expressed as percentages of total fatty acids. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) decreased regardless of how results were expressed, but the absolute concentrations of these fatty acids in plasma available for tissue accretion were greater than suggested by the percentage results. Plasma and RBC docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) decreased in the MF group in comparison to the HM group. Arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) was lower in plasma of MF-fed infant but not in RBC phospholipids. We conclude that term SGA infants fed an adapted milk formula with a linoleic:alpha-linolenic acid ratio of 10:1 but devoid of LCP may lead to a low n-3 LCP status.     

Concentration and distribution of sialic acid in human milk and infant formulas

BACKGROUND: In animal studies, sialic acid supplementation is associated with increases of gangliosides in the brain and improved learning ability. Only limited data are available on the sialic acid content of human milk and infant formulas. OBJECTIVE: We compared the concentrations of oligosaccharide-bound, protein-bound, and free sialic acid in milk from mothers of full-term and preterm infants and in a range of infant formulas. DESIGN: The milk from 20 and 14 mothers of full-term and preterm infants (mean gestational age: 31 +/- 3 wk), respectively, was collected at 4 stages of lactation (colostrum, transition, 1 mo, and 3 mo) and compared with 21 different infant formulas. RESULTS: Total sialic acid concentrations were highest in colostrum (x +/- SEM: 5.04 +/- 0.21 mmol/L in full term) and decreased by nearly 80% over the next 3 mo. Human milk from mothers of preterm infants contained 13-23% more sialic acid than did milk from mothers of full-term infants at 3 of the 4 lactation stages (P < 0.02). The sialic acid content of most formulas was <25% of that found in mature human milk (P < 0.01). Most of the sialic acid in the formulas ( approximately 70%) was bound to glycoproteins, whereas in human milk most sialic acid was bound to free oligosaccharides. CONCLUSIONS: Human milk, including milk from mothers of preterm infants, is a rich source of oligosaccharide-bound sialic acid, which contrasts with the relatively small amounts found in infant formulas. The nutritional significance of sialic acid is presently unknown, but it is plausible that it is a conditional nutrient that contributes to sialic acid accretion in the brain.     

A novel infant formula milk with added long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from single-cell sources: a study of growth, satisfaction and health

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the growth, feeding and health of babies fed a novel infant formula milk with added long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPs) produced from single-cell sources, at concentrations similar to those found in mature breast milk. DESIGN: Randomized double-blind control trial. SUBJECTS: One-hundred and forty healthy, full-term infants of birth weight 2.5-4.5 kg born at the Maternity Department, East Glamorgan General Hospital, Wales, whose mothers had already decided to bottle feed. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects were randomized to two groups; one (control group) to receive a standard formula milk and the other to receive the trial milk with added LCPs. Milks were supplied in a double-blind fashion and given for the first 12 weeks of life. Anthropometric measurements were made at recruitment, 3 months, 6 months and 1 y. Feeding diaries were completed at 6 weeks and 3 months, and a parental record was kept of any ill health suffered by the subjects during the first year of life. RESULTS: Of 140 infants recruited, 31 did not complete the protocol. Small but statistically significant differences were found only in the subscapular skinfold thickness at 6 weeks and 3 months, that in the trial group being slightly higher, but unlikely to be of any clinical importance. No differences were found in the feeding patterns of the infants in the two groups. Stool patterns were similar, as were the frequencies of illness and allergy. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the view that LCPs from single-cell sources do not have detrimental effects on the growth, feeding and general health of infants.     

Free fatty acids and fatty acids of triacylglycerols profiles in muscle and plasma of fed and underfed laboratory rats

The aim of this work is to contribute to the study of the effect of organic depression in lipid metabolism of livestock during seasonal tropical areas drought conditions. As a model, rats were used in the study. Sixteen Whister male rats were divided in 2 groups: C (control) fed ad libitum and R (restricted feeding) fed 34% energy maintenance needs, simulating livestock weight loss in frequent drought seasons. Animals were slaughtered at day 23 of the experimental period and samples were taken from plasma and gastrocnemius muscle. Undernutrition significally induced the increase of % free C14:0 content in the plasma and decreased the % C16:0 incorporated in triacylglycerols of muscle fat. In underfed rats, C18:0 suffered a relative increase in its free and in its sterified form in the adipocytes of the muscle. Food restriction decreased the % of C18:1 as free fatty acid in the muscle and in plasma. These results are consistent with the existence of a preferential degradation of long-chain fatty acids in underfed rats.     

The importance of essential fatty acids and the effect of trans fatty acids in human milk on fetal and neonatal development

Breastfeeding has a major impact on public health, since human breast milk is the best food for infants up to six months of age. The lipid fraction in human milk is the main source of energy for the infant and supplies essential nutrients such as fat-soluble vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Essential fatty acids (EFA), specifically linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), are precursors of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), including docosahexaenoic (DHA) and arachidonic (ARA) acids. Quality of lipids in secreted milk is precisely related to maternal ingestion. LC-PUFAs protect against allergy and infection and are important for visual and cognitive development in infancy. Industrial food processing has introduced the trans fatty acids (TFA) among the nutrients available to the population. TFA can interfere with the metabolism of essential fatty acids by decreasing LC-PUFA synthesis. It is thus important to raise population awareness on the importance of adequate PUFA consumption and reduced TFA intake during prenatal and postnatal development.     

Plasma total and free fatty acids composition in human non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), the association of steatosis with an inflammatory response, is a novel liver disease of unknown pathogenesis and prognosis. Triacylglycerols and their precursors, the fatty acids, are the likely candidates to accumulate in the hepatocyte. Disturbed fatty acid metabolism can be involved in the pathogenesis of NASH but there is no information concerning its plasma fatty acid profile. The aim of this study was to evaluate plasma total (esterified plus free) and free fatty acids concentrations to assess the association of NASH with plasma fatty acid accumulation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Overnight fasting blood samples from 22 biopsy-proven NASH patients and of 6 matched age healthy controls were studied. RESULTS: NASH patients had significantly higher concentration of total and free fatty acids than controls (P<0.05), higher total saturated and monounsaturated levels in both studied lipid fractions (P<0.05), mainly due to the increase of hexadecanoic, hexadecenoic and octadecenoic acids. Absolute polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) concentrations were similar in both groups. The C20:4/C18:2 and the C18:1/C18:0 ratios as well as the peroxidability index were not significantly different. CONCLUSION: In overweight/obese patients NASH is associated with deranged fatty acid metabolism which may be involved in its pathogenesis and/or progression.     

Supplementation of infant formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids does not influence the growth of term infants

BACKGROUND: Adequate growth is an important indicator of health and well-being in infants. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to determine the effect of supplementing infant formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) on the growth of term infants. DESIGN: Using the methodology outlined by the Cochrane Collaboration, we reviewed all known randomized controlled trials that involved LCPUFA supplementation of infant formula fed to term infants. Outcome measures were weight, length, and head circumference. Original data obtained from the investigators of published trials were used. Outcomes were analyzed with fixed-effects or random-effects model meta-analyses and were reported as weighted mean differences with 95% CIs. RESULTS: We identified 14 eligible trials that had data available for meta-analysis (1846 infants). Trial quality was generally high. Meta-analysis showed no significant effect of LCPUFA supplementation on infant weight, length, or head circumference at any assessment age. Similarly, subgroup analyses showed that supplementation with only n-3 LCPUFAs (no arachidonic acid) had no significant effect on infant weight, length, or head circumference. The source of LCPUFA supplementation (phospholipid or triacylglycerol) also did not significantly affect infant growth. CONCLUSION: We found no evidence that LCPUFA supplementation of infant formula influences the growth of term infants in either a positive or a negative way.     

Will dietary omega-3 fatty acids change the composition of human milk?

The most abundant long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid in brain and retinal lipids is docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 omega 3). It becomes incorporated into nerve tissues mostly in utero and during the 1st yr of life. DHA is derived in humans either performed in the diet or by hepatic synthesis from dietary linolenic acid (C18:3 omega 3). Since human milk contains DHA, this study was designed to see if increased dietary DHA would be reflected in a higher DHA content in human milk. Eight lactating women were given supplements of a fish oil concentrate rich in omega-3 fatty acids, including DHA (11% of fatty acids). Six women took 5 g/day of fish oil for 28 days; five women consumed 10 g/day for 14 days; and one woman consumed 47 g/day for 8 days. Each intake level of fish oil produced significant dose-dependent increases in the DHA content of milk and plasma. Base-line DHA levels in milk were 0.1 +/- 0.06% of total fatty acids. Five g/day of fish oil raised the levels to 0.5 +/- 0.1% (p less than 0.001); 10 g/day raised DHA levels to 0.8 +/- 0.1% (p less than 0.001); and 47 g/day produced DHA levels of 4.8%. The results of this study indicated that relatively low intakes of dietary DHA significantly elevated milk DHA content. This would clearly elevate the infant's DHA intake and might have implications for brain and retinal development.