Successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation outcome reviews

An implicit question in every pre-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) scenario is 'what will be the quality of life if a save is achieved?' This issue has implications for doctrine, policy, training and post-CPR counselling of both resuscitator and victim. Post-salvage neurological syndromes in surviving victims include amnesia, personality change, cognitive loss, depression, Parkinsonian syndromes, decorticate and decerebrate states and permanent brain damage with vegetative existence. Children who are salvaged by CPR rarely have pre-existing co-morbidities; but 75% of adults have pre-existing cardiac disease, cancer or diabetes. Such, of course, continue after a successful resuscitation. In the case of children who are resuscitated from acute hypoxic insults, the quality of life is generally good and, in the specific instance of survivors from near-drowning, some 95% will lead lives relatively unmodified. Although successful CPR resuscitation rates remain low in adults, the quality of life of those who leave hospital remains generally high. CPR involves two feature subjects, the resuscitator and the victim. Just as for the victim, so too the resuscitator's life is modified by CPR and its aftermath, whether immediate salvage has been achieved or not. This review addresses these issues, as a successful CPR (dramatic as it is) is not a conclusion but the beginning of a new phase of life for both resuscitator and victim.     

Predicting outcome of inhospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation

We conducted a prospective study of CPR in our hospital in order to learn more of the factors influencing outcome. In a 7-month period, 71 patients underwent CPR. Twenty-nine (41%) were successfully resuscitated; of these, 13 (18% of the total group) survived to be discharged from the hospital. Factors associated with a successful outcome included occurrence of cardiopulmonary arrest within 24 h of hospitalization, short duration of CPR, and the absence of cardiogenic shock, sepsis, acute renal failure, cancer, and pneumonia. Factors which did not influence outcome included the patients' age, sex, location in hospital during the arrest (general ward vs. intensive cardiac care unit), time of day of the arrest, or the participation of senior physicians or anesthesiologists in the resuscitation.     

Neurologic outcome following successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation in dogs

Successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation necessitates that both myocardial and central nervous system function be restored with minimal long-term damage. Recent resuscitation research has emphasized minimizing neurologic damage during and after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. However, whether neurologic damage is a major cause of death or morbidity following successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation is unknown. This study examined the role of neurologic injury as a cause for morbidity and mortality following cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and if parameters used successfully during resuscitation for assessing the potential for myocardial salvage, could also be used to predict neurologic outcome. Eighty-eight mongrel dogs underwent 3 min of untreated ventricular fibrillation and either 15 or 17 min of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Twenty-four hour survivors were evaluated with a neurologic deficit scoring system. Thirty-one percent of these animals were never resuscitated. Twenty-eight percent were resuscitated, but expired prior to 24 h. Approximately half of those who expired after resuscitation died from apparent neurologic sequellae. Forty-one percent of the 88 animals survived for 24 h. Two-thirds of these survivors were completely neurologically normal, while one-third were neurologically impaired. Hemodynamic parameters useful in assessing cardiovascular prognosis were not helpful in predicting neurologic outcome. Hence, although the majority of resuscitated animals did not suffer neurologic damage, up to one-third did exhibit neurologic impairment following resuscitation. Neurologic injury is also a major contributor to early death following successful resuscitation. Hemodynamic parameters of cardiovascular recovery do not predict neurologic outcome after prolonged cardiopulmonary resuscitation.     

Family presence during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in children

Witnessing a cardiopulmonary resuscitation is a dramatic event for health care workers and for the relatives of those involved, especially for parents and relatives of children. METHOD: A literature review was performed on MedLine, PubMed, Ebsco, with the following keywords: Family presence, Relatives, Parents presence, Pediatric Resuscitation, Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), Pediatric intensive care unit, to explore if parents should be allowed to witness or not and their need of support. RESULTS: Most paediatric guidelines favour the presence of relatives during CPR and the results of surveys are consistent in reporting that parents prefer to see what is happening to their child. The benefits for health care workers include an improvement of the relationship with family members, thus facilitating the flow of information and health education. Years of education and experience, together with specific protocols may help health care workers to accept the presence of relatives during critical events.     

Prediction of neurological outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

In 231 patients with circulatory arrest of primary cardiovascular or pulmonary aetiology guidelines were established for predicting neurological outcome within the first year after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Outcome measures were brain death, persistent unconsciousness, persistent disability after awakening and complete recovery. A total of 116 patients remained unconscious while 115 regained consciousness. Brain stem areflexia with apnoea (brain death) was demonstrated in 40 patients. No other finding per se could predict a specific outcome. The time for recovery of individual neurological functions seemed to be the key to prognostication. Testing the caloric vestibular reflex or stereotypic reactivity thus differentiated patients regaining consciousness from those remaining unconscious, with positive predictive values of 0.79 and 0.77 at 1 h and negative values of 1.0 and 0.97 at 24 h as compared with 50/50 prior odds. The presence of speech at 24 h or the ability to cope with personal necessities at 72 h predicted complete recovery with positive predictive values of 0.91 and 0.92 as compared with prior odds of 0.17, whereas, the negative predictive values never exceeded prior odds of 0.83.     

One-year survival and neurological outcome after pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation

OBJECTIVE: Reported survival after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in children varies considerably. We aimed to identify predictors of 1-year survival and to assess long-term neurological status after in- or outpatient CPR. DESIGN: Retrospective review of the medical records and prospective follow-up of CPR survivors. SETTING: Tertiary care pediatric university hospital. PATIENTS AND METHODS: During a 30-month period, 89 in- and outpatients received advanced CPR. Survivors of CPR were prospectively followed-up for 1 year. Neurological outcome was assessed by the Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category scale (PCPC). Variables predicting 1-year survival were identified by multivariable logistic regression analysis. INTERVENTIONS: None. RESULTS: Seventy-one of the 89 patients were successfully resuscitated. During subsequent hospitalization do-not-resuscitate orders were issued in 25 patients. At 1 year, 48 (54%) were alive, including two of the 25 patients with out-of-hospital CPR. All patients died, who required CPR after trauma or near drowning, when CPR began >10 min after arrest or with CPR duration >60 min. Prolonged CPR (21-60 min) was compatible with survival (five of 19). At 1 year, 77% of the survivors had the same PCPC score as prior to CPR. Predictors of survival were location of resuscitation, CPR during peri- or postoperative care, and duration of resuscitation. A clinical score (0-15 points) based on these three items yielded an area under the ROC of 0.93. CONCLUSIONS: Independent determinants of long-term survival of pediatric resuscitation are location of arrest, underlying cause, and duration of CPR. Long-term survivors have little or no change in neurological status.     

翻转法置入PLMA在小儿心肺复苏中的应用

目的:翻转法置入小儿ProSeal喉罩在心肺复苏中的应用效果。方法:80例CPR过程中需插入食管引流型喉罩(PLMA)的小儿随机分为翻转组(R组)和标准组(S组)两组,对成功置入喉罩时间、置入次数、变换置入方法次数及喉罩漏气,喉罩反折,罩体带血,操作者手指痛感等不良反应和CPR成功率进行比较。结果:R组喉罩置入时间明显短于S组(P<0.05),置入一次成功率明显高于S组(P<0.05),R组操作者手指痛感明显少于S组(P<0.05),CPR成功率R组心肺复苏成功23例(57.5%)明显高于S组15例(37.5%)(P<0.05)。结论:小儿ProSeal喉罩翻转置入法操作快速安全有效,提高抢救成功率。     

闭胸复苏犬的血流动力学特点的研究

目的 研究闭胸复苏犬的血流动力学特点,分析其机制.方法 健康杂种犬12只,采用电击致犬室颤的动物模型.心跳停止4 min后,按照国际心肺复苏指南2005标准开始心肺复苏.复苏2 min后,静注肾上腺素1 mg.致颤前及复苏过程中对主动脉内压、中心静脉压、心电图进行有创同步监测.方法 用Chart5Ch软件做统计图,计算冠脉灌注压,分析闭胸复苏犬的血流动力学特点.用配对t检验比较静注肾上腺素前后血流动力学变化,P＜0.05为差异具有统计学意义.结果 闭胸复苏犬的血流动力学效应表现为两种类型:8只犬(8/12)表现为主动脉内压(AOP)与中心静脉压(CVP)同步变化,而冠脉灌注压(CPP)几乎为0;4只犬(4/12)表现为主动脉内压升高而中心静脉压不变.静注肾上腺素后,AOP及CPP显著增大,其中,主动脉收缩压(ASP)[(66±14)mmHg和(107±28)mmHg,P＜0.01];主动脉舒张压(ADP)[(25±2.2)mmHg和(45±13)mmHg,P=0.001],CPP[(2.8±3.8)mmHg和(29±13)mmHg,P＜0.001];ASP,ADP及CPP增加值的95%可信区间分别是(21.1～59.1),(10.2～28.3)及(16.7～35.7).结论 胸泵机制是闭胸复苏的主要机制.肾上腺素可以打破心肺复苏时主动脉内压与中心静脉压的平衡,增加冠脉灌注压,可能增加复苏成功率.

Abstract：

Objective To study the hemodynamics during closed chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCCPR) in dogs in order to unravel the mechanism. Method Twelve healthy mongrel dogs were selected to make animal model of ventricular fibrillation induced by electric shock on the chest wall. Closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CCCPR) was initiated four minutes after ventricular fibrillation appeared according to American Heart Guidelines in 2005 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Rescue. After CPR for 2 minutes, 1mg epinephrine was injected intravenously. The central venous pressure (CVP), the aortic pressure (AOP)and the invasive electrocardiogram (ECG) were used to monitor continuously before ventricular fibrillation and the entire course of CPR. The coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) was calculated. The changes in aortic diastolic pressure (ADP) and CPP produced by chest compression or the injection of epinephrine were analyzed. The aortic pressure and the central venous pressure were recorded simultaneously during CPR. A chart was made and the CPP was calculated with the software Chart5Ch. The hemodynamic changes produced by the administration of epinephrine were studied. Data were analyzed with paired Student t test. P ＜ 0.05 was considered as a significant difference. Results Two kinds of hemodynamic effects of CPR were observed. In 8 dogs (8/12) , the aortic pressure changed synchronously with the CVP, and the CPP was almost zero, and in other 4 dogs (4/12), the aortic pressure increased and the CVP remained unchanged with presence of the CPP. After the administration of epinephrine, the AOP and the CPP increased significantly. The Aortic systolic pressure(ASP) increased from (66± 14) mmHg to(107 ± 28) mmHg, (P = 0. 001). The Aortic diastolic pressure (ADP) increased from (25 ±2.2) mmHg to(45 ± 13) mmHg (P =0.001). And the coronary perfusion pressure (CPP) increased from (2.8± 3.8) mmHg to (29 ± 13) mmHg (P ＜ 0.001). The 95 % confidential interval of the added value of the ASP,ADP and CPPwere (21.1-59.1), (10.2-28.3) and (16.7-35.7), respectively. Conclusions The thoracic pump mechanism is the primary role in the closed chest Cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Epinephrine can increase ADP and CPP and has the capability to break the balance between aortic pressure and central venous pressure, increasing the rate of successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation.     

Microvascular blood flow during cardiopulmonary resuscitation is predictive of outcome

There is growing evidence that microcirculatory blood flow is the ultimate determinant of the outcome in circulatory shock states. We therefore examined changes in the microcirculation accompanying the most severe form of circulatory failure, namely cardiac arrest and the effects of subsequent cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Ventricular fibrillation was electrically induced in nine pigs and untreated for 5min prior to beginning closed chest cardiac compression and attempting electrical defibrillation. Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging was utilized for visualization of the sublingual microcirculation at baseline, 0.5, 1, 3 and 5min after onset of ventricular fibrillation and at 1 and 5min after start of chest compression. Images were also obtained 1 and 5min after restoration of spontaneous circulation. Microvascular flow was graded from 0 (no flow) to 3 (normal flow). Aortic and right atrial pressures were measured and coronary perfusion pressure was computed continuously. Microcirculatory blood flow decreased to less than one-fourth within 0.5min after inducing ventricular fibrillation. Precordial compression partially restored microvascular flow in each animal. In animals that were successfully resuscitated, microvascular flow was significantly greater after 1 and 5min of chest compression than in animals with failed resuscitation attempts. Microvascular blood flow was highly correlated with coronary perfusion pressure (r=0.82, p<0.01). Microvascular blood flow in the sublingual mucosa is therefore closely related to coronary perfusion pressure during cardiopulmonary resuscitation and both are predictive of outcome.     

Plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 and outcome after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation

OBJECTIVE: Patients after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation have been shown to exhibit elevated plasma concentrations of plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI) type 1, the main circulating antifibrinolytic protein. It has been suggested that elevations in PAI-1 contribute to cerebral no-reflow after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation. We analyzed whether PAI-1 concentrations might predict cerebral outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. DESIGN: Prospective, controlled study. SETTING: Intensive care unit at a university hospital. PATIENTS: Thirty-five patients after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation and 35 control patients who were not critically ill. INTERVENTIONS: Blood sampling for determination of plasma concentrations of active and total PAI-1 antigen. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Plasma concentrations of total and active PAI-1 antigen on the second day after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation were significantly higher in patients after cardiopulmonary resuscitation than in controls (p <.0001) and were unrelated to duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Both active and total PAI-1 antigen were higher in patients who developed acute renal failure after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Patients with an unfavorable cerebral outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation had higher total PAI-1 antigen concentrations compared with patients with good outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (p =.026). We identified 180 ng/mL as the best cutoff value for total PAI-1 antigen with respect to cerebral outcome (chi-square 11.8, p =.001). In a logistic regression analysis, only systemic inflammatory response syndrome (p =.028), acute renal failure after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (p =.017), and cardiopulmonary resuscitation duration >15 mins (p =.042) were significantly and independently associated with cerebral outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Total PAI-1 antigen reached only borderline significance (p =.058) but nevertheless slightly improved the correct prediction of cerebral outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. CONCLUSIONS: Acute renal failure after cardiopulmonary resuscitation, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation duration are better predictors of cerebral outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation than PAI-1 antigen, but determination of total PAI-1 antigen nevertheless might improve the early prediction of cerebral outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Whether elevated PAI-1 concentrations, possibly via prothrombogenic/antifibrinolytic effects, contribute causally to cerebral no-reflow and acute renal failure after cardiopulmonary resuscitation remains to be clarified.     

Prediction of outcome of cardiopulmonary resuscitation from end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration

Capnography is a valuable tool in the management of cardiac arrest, since end-tidal CO2 (PetCO2) correlates well with cardiac output and there are no other suitable noninvasive ways to measure this important variable during resuscitation. Animal studies also suggest that PetCO2 correlates well with the likelihood of resuscitation, but this has never been confirmed in humans. We prospectively studied 55 adult, nontraumatic prehospital cardiac arrest patients. PetCO2 was monitored with an in-line sensor on arrival in the ED and throughout the arrest, which was managed by the usual advanced cardiac life-support treatment guidelines. Chest compression was carried out mechanically. Patients were assessed for return of spontaneous pulse as evidence of initial resuscitation; hospital discharge and long-term survival were not examined. Fourteen patients developed spontaneous pulses and were resuscitated, and 41 were not. The length and aggressiveness of treatment and CPR were not different between the two groups, nor were there differences in down time, resuscitation time, or other factors known to affect outcome. Patients who developed a pulse had a mean PetCO2 of 19 +/- 14 (SD) torr at the start of resuscitation, and those who did not had a mean PetCO2 of 5 +/- 4 torr (p less than .0001). This difference was significant both in nonperfusing rhythms (asystole and ventricular fibrillation) and in potentially perfusing rhythms (electromechanical dissociation). An initial PetCO2 of 15 torr correctly predicted eventual return of pulse with a sensitivity of 71%, a specificity of 98%, a positive predictive value of 91%, and a negative predictive value of 91%. A receiver operating curve was generated for sensitivity and specificity of the test at varying PetCO2 thresholds.     

Effectiveness and long-term outcome of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in paediatric intensive care units in Spain

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the immediate effectiveness of resuscitation and long-term outcome of children who suffered a cardiorespiratory arrest when admitted to paediatric intensive care units (PICU). DESIGN AND SETTING: Secondary analysis of data from an 18-month prospective, multicentre study analysing cardiorespiratory arrest in children in 16 paediatric intensive care units in Spain. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We studied 116 children between 7 days and 17 years of age. Data were recorded according to the Utstein style. Analysed outcome variables were sustained return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), survival to hospital discharge and survival at 1 year. Neurological and general performance outcome was assessed by means of the Paediatric Cerebral Performance Category (PCPC) and the Paediatric Overall Performance Category (POPC) scales. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: In 80 patients (69%) ROSC was achieved and it was sustained > 20 min in 69 (59.5%). At one-year follow-up, 40 children (34.5%) were alive. Survival was not associated with sex, age or weight of patients. Mortality from cardiac arrest was higher than respiratory arrest (69.8% versus 40%, p = 0.01). Patients with sepsis had a higher mortality than other diagnostic groups. Mechanically ventilated children and those treated with vasoactive drugs had a higher mortality. Initial mortality was slightly higher in patients with slow ECG rhythms (35.7%) compared to those with ventricular fibrillation (VF) or pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT) (27.2%). Duration of resuscitation effort was correlated with mortality (p < 0.0001). Patients who required one or more doses of adrenaline had also a higher mortality (77.8% versus 20.7%, p < 0.0001) and survivors needed less doses of adrenaline (0.85 +/- 1.14 versus 4.4+/-2.9, p < 0.0001). At hospital discharge 86.8 and 84.6% of patients had scores 1 or 2 (normal or near-normal) in the PCPC and POPC scales. At 1-year follow-up these figures were 90.8 and 86.3%, respectively. CONCLUSION: One-third of children who suffer a cardiac or respiratory arrest when admitted to PICU survive, and most of them had a good long-term neurological and functional outcome. The duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation attempts is the best indicator of mortality.     

早期测定血清神经元特异性烯醇化酶水平对心跳呼吸骤停复苏后住院患儿转归以及神经学预后的预测作用

目的探讨早期检测血清神经元特异性烯醇化酶（NSE）水平对发生心跳呼吸骤停（CRA）住院患儿复苏后转归以及神经学预后的预测作用。方法选择2006年1月至2008年12月发生CRA的住院患儿,分为死亡组和存活组,对存活患儿随访6个月,分为神经学预后不良组和预后良好组。比较患儿年龄、性别、骤停类型、CPR时间、ROSC后Glasgow昏迷评分（CCS）、瞳孔对光反射恢复、需要镇静与否;在复苏后24～36h随机测定外周静脉血清NSE浓度,比较组间采样时间以及血清NSE水平。利用受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线,分别取NSE对复苏后死亡和6月时神经学不良预后诊断特异度（Sp）为100％、敏感度（se）最高的点为截断（cutt-off）值,并计算阳性预测值（PPV）、阴性预测值（NPV）和正确度。结果最终纳入病例87例,ROSC43例,存活出院19例,死亡24例;随访6月后,神经学预后不良12例,预后良好7例。死亡组与存活组以及神经学预后不良组与良好组间比较,CPR时间、GCS、瞳孔对光反射恢复、需要镇静与否以及NSE血清水平存在显著统计学差异（P均〈0．05）。NSE水平与CPR时间呈显著正相关（r=0．901,P=0．00）;与GCS呈显著负相关（r=-0．813,P=0．00）。NSE对复苏后ROSC患儿转归的ROC曲线下面积为0．846±0．065（95％CI：0．720-0．973,P=0．oo）,截断值为90．6ng／ml,Se、Sp、PPV、NPV、准确度分别为20．8％、100％、100％、50％、53．5％;NSE对神经学预后的ROC曲线下面积为0．929±0．072（95％CI：0．788—1．069,P=0．002）,截断值为50．7ng／ml,se、Sp、PPV、NPV、准确度分别为50％、100％、100％、53．8％、68．4％。结论ROSC后早期血清NSE水平对复苏后患儿转归和神经学预后有预测意义。     

Early prediction of individual outcome following cardiopulmonary resuscitation: systematic review

Following resuscitation from cardiorespiratory arrest 80% of patients are comatose. Of these patients, 20% will survive and regain consciousness. Is it possible to predict an individual''s long term outcome at presentation and alter management accordingly? This review examines the current medical literature and demonstrates it is impossible to predict immediately outcome from hypoxic-ischaemic coma except in a small subgroup of patients with poor premorbid factors. As individual prognosis cannot be determined in the emergency department all patients who do not have significant premorbid features should proceed to a period of supportive care in the intensive care unit. Therapeutic hypothermia should be considered for these patients.