SUMO修饰与端粒维持

端粒(telomere)长度维持在一定的范围内是细胞正常生理功能的一个重要的基础,端粒长度的变化可导致两个截然相反的病理生理过程-癌变和衰老,端粒过长可引起细胞永生化而癌变,端粒进行性缩短则有丝分裂能力下降导致细胞衰老[1].端粒的长度和结构依赖端粒酶的活性及端粒蛋白复合体(shelterin)的调节[2],端粒酶的激活可引起端粒DNA序列增加而延长细胞的寿命.泛素样小分子修饰(small ubiquin-like modifier,SUMO修饰)在不同的端粒维持机制中的作用途径不同,SUMO修饰可激活端粒酶的活性,促进依赖端粒酶合成端粒的途径,SUMO修饰也可促进同源重组途径合成端粒的能力[3],增加端粒的长度,在保持端粒的长度上发挥重要的调节作用.     

端粒酶活性抑制与肿瘤治疗的研究

端粒酶是一种核糖蛋白,包括人端粒酶RNA、端粒酶相关蛋白和端粒酶催化蛋白亚单位三个主要组成部分,可向染色体末端添加端粒DNA序列.端粒酶在85％～95％的恶性肿瘤组织中有阳性表达,而正常体细胞则一般阴性,是进行肿瘤基因治疗的理想靶点.目前以抑制端粒酶活性为靶点的肿瘤治疗研究较多,其主要策略有:①阻断人端粒酶RNA的模板作用;②抑制端粒酶催化蛋白亚单位;③核苷类似物竞争性抑制反转录过程;④细胞分化诱导剂抑制端粒酶活性;⑤对细胞内调节机制进行调控;⑥其它抑制剂对端粒酶活性的调节.     

端粒、端粒酶与抗衰老的研究进展

端粒是染色体末端的DNA重复序列,是染色体末端的"保护帽",它能维持染色体的稳定,防止染色体相互融合.端粒酶可以合成端粒,在端粒受损时能把端粒修复延长,可以让端粒不会因细胞分裂而有所损耗,使得细胞分裂的次数增加.本文就端粒、端粒酶与衰老的关系及其在抗衰老中的应用作一综述.     

人骨髓间质干细胞中的端粒调控机制

目的：〖HT5"SS〗研究人骨髓来源间充质干细胞(MSCs)端粒长度的调控机制。方法：以贴壁培养法从人骨髓中分离MSCs并用MSCs及造血干细胞相关表面抗体作表型鉴定,用Southern blotting检测MSCs的端粒长度;应用免疫荧光染色技术检测端粒重复序列结合因子1（TRF1）和早幼粒细胞白血病蛋白小体（PML）的定位;以端粒重复序列扩增法（TRAP）和/或Western blotting法检测传代及分化成脂肪细胞的MSCs和经同步化处理被阻断在S期的MSCs的端粒酶表达。结果：与端粒酶阴性ALT细胞株WI-38-2RA细胞相比,MSCs的端粒长度较短并且端粒长度变异度不大;端粒调控相关蛋白TRF1和PML在MSCs中的定位则与端粒酶阳性细胞HeLa细胞相同,两者呈非共定位,而在端粒酶阴性WI-38-2RA细胞中两者呈共定位状态。MSCs中不存在有染色体外端粒重复序列DNA（ECTR DNA）。TRAP法检测传代培养的MSCs端粒酶呈阴性表达,但分化成脂肪的MSCs端粒酶呈阳性表达。Western blotting 检测同步化处理前MSCs端粒酶呈微弱表达,经同步化处理被阻断在S期时,MSCs的端粒酶表达明显增高,并且与S期的细胞比例呈正相关。结论：MSCs中不存在ALT相关的早幼粒细胞白血病蛋白小体(APBs)、染色体外端粒重复序列DNA(ECTR DNA)和端粒长度较长、端粒长度变异度大等ALT机制相关分子特征;非同步化在S期处理的MSCs,端粒酶呈微弱表达,但诱导向脂肪细胞分化或处在S期时,MSCs的端粒酶表达明显增高,并且与S期的细胞比例呈正相关。本研究提示MSCs是通过端粒酶机制而不是端粒延长旁路途径（ALT）机制调控其端粒末端。     

端粒、端粒酶、衰老与癌变

端粒和端粒酶与细胞增殖密切相关，在衰老和癌变过程中发挥重要作用。端粒的结构和长度变化、端粒酶的表达水平在众多相关蛋白所组成的复杂调控网络的作用下保持平衡。端粒酶也通过非端粒依赖性机制发挥细胞保护作用，可以促进干细胞激活和增殖。     

端粒及端粒酶研究的新进展

端粒是染色体末端高度保守的重复核苷酸序列，对染色体具有保护作用，随着细胞分裂的不断进行，端粒逐渐缩短，减少到一定程度，细胞就趋向衰亡，被认为是细胞有丝分裂的“生物钟”。端粒酶是影响端粒长度的主要因素，以其ＲＮＡ为模板，向端粒末端添加（ＴＴＡＧＧＧ）ｎ序列，使端粒延长，从而延长细胞的寿命甚至使其永生。端粒酶的功能区主要在ｈＴＲ的４４－２０３核苷酸区，３ｐ和１０ｐ上存在着编码调整端粒酶的基因，Ｅｓｔｌ可能是端粒末端结合蛋白，是端粒酶的识别位点。正常情况下，此酶活性较低或无活性，但在干细胞、永生型细胞或肿瘤细胞此酶活性较强。端粒酶的活性主要与细胞分裂速度、细胞周期因素及细胞分化程度有关，细胞分化程度低、细胞增生活跃及肿瘤细胞在Ｓ期时活性较高。在恶性肿瘤中端粒酶活性较高，但在良性肿瘤和非肿瘤中活性较低，因而可利用ＴＲＡＰ技术对端粒酶活性进行检测来进行肿瘤诊断及良恶性鉴别。同时可利用端粒酶抑制剂能抑制端粒酶的活性，缩短端粒，使恶化细胞良转，达到治疗肿瘤的作用，而且还可利用检测端粒酶作为治疗效果好坏的指标。     

端粒体--调节端粒的多聚复合体

因端粒与衰老、肿瘤密切相关,近年来对端粒调节的研究进一步深入。最近发现端粒长度的动态平衡是由端粒、端粒酶、端粒结合蛋白组成的高分子复合体———端粒体调节的。在端粒体中,端粒、端粒酶、端粒结合蛋白相互作用,共同完成对细胞基本生命活动的调节。近年来,分子生物学技术的进展从分子水平上阐明了端粒体各组分间的关系,为端粒长度的调节开辟了新的靶点。     

端粒及端粒酶活性的调控机制

广义的端粒由帽子、双链的串联重复序列的DNA核心部分及亚端粒构成,其结合蛋白是一个复合体,由TRF1、TRF2、TIN2、Pot1、TPP1、RAP1 6个亚单位组成;另外,还结合组蛋白的特定成分H3K9三甲基聚合体和H4K20三甲基聚合体.端粒酶主要由hTerc、hTert、dyskerin构成.端粒的功能主要受端粒酶的活性调控;而端粒酶活性主要受hTert及hTerc的转录水平和转录后的剪切、hTert的翻译等因素的调控.端粒与端粒酶结构和功能的异常与细胞衰老及肿瘤的发生、发展关系密切.     

端粒酶活性测定及其临床医学应用

端粒酶是由RNA和蛋白亚基组成的一种核酸蛋白复合物,它能以自身RNA为模板反转录合成端粒DNA序列,然后添加至染色体末端,以补偿细胞分裂时染色体末端的缩短,使端粒延长,端粒功能得以恢复.从而使某些增殖旺盛的细胞和肿瘤细胞的端粒保持一个动态的平衡.随着人们对端粒认识的深化,特别是1989年Morin首先在人的癌细胞系中发现端粒酶以来,肿瘤细胞永生化的"端粒-端粒酶"学说已为越来越多的研究结果所证实.端粒酶几乎在所有的恶性肿瘤进程中都有表达,但良性病变和正常组织除生殖细胞和干细胞外均不表达,由于它的广泛表达和可能作为癌症治疗的新靶点,使得端粒酶成为目前全世界的研究热点,并使之成为诊断恶性肿瘤的重要标记物之一,本文就端粒酶活性测定及其在临床医学中的应用情况作一简要综述.     

端粒、端粒酶与儿童血液系统肿瘤

目前研究表明 ,端粒酶与肿瘤密切相关 ,它有助于肿瘤的无限性生长。因此 ,端粒酶能否作为肿瘤的特异性标记以及能否通过抑制端粒酶来治疗肿瘤已成为研究肿瘤诊治的新热点。现就儿童血液系统肿瘤的研究进展做一综述。1　端粒和端粒酶1.1　端粒　在本世纪 30年代 ,Muller等首先发现端粒是位于真核细胞线性染色体末端的一种特殊结构。 70～ 80年代 ,Greider等从四膜虫染色体中分离出端粒结构 ,并确定它含有 5′TTGGGG3′的碱基重复序列。人类染色体端粒由重复数千次的 5′TTAGGG3′序列组成 ,不同细胞其长度不一 ,其作用是保护染色体末端…     

Telomere maintenance by telomerase and by recombination can coexist in human cells

Immortal human cells maintain their telomeres by two independent mechanisms, a prevalent one dependent on de novo synthesis of telomeric DNA by telomerase, and a rarer one based on telomere recombination [alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT)]. Studies with yeast have indicated that expression of telomerase inhibits telomere recombination. In the present study, we have investigated whether expression of telomerase in cells that use ALT would similarly reveal dominance of telomere elongation by telomerase over telomere recombination. Telomerase-negative WI38 VA13/2RA ALT cells were reconstituted for telomerase activity through ectopic expression of the enzyme subunits, hTERT and hTR, and the presence and function of telomerase and ALT were monitored during long term cell growth by enzymatic assays, detection of the ALT-associated PML bodies (APBs) and analysis of telomere dynamics. Our results indicate that telomerase activity and APBs persisted in the cells over at least 90 population doublings. The activity of both pathways on telomeres was determined by analysis of telomere length versus time by gel electrophoresis and in situ hybridization. ALT cells are characterized by very heterogeneous telomeres with a much longer average size than the telomeres of telomerase-positive cells. Telomere dynamics in our cells were compatible with both ALT and telomerase being biologically active since the long telomeres typical of ALT were maintained, while short telomeres, thought to be the preferential substrate of telomerase, were elongated. These findings, indicating that human cells may be capable of concomitantly utilizing both mechanisms of telomere maintenance without effects on their growth and viability, have implications for cancer therapy.     

The telomere lengthening mechanism in telomerase-negative immortal human cells does not involve the telomerase RNA subunit

According to the telomere hypothesis of senescence, the progressive shortening of telomeres that occurs upon division of normal somatic cells eventually leads to cellular senescence. The immortalisation of human cells is associated with the acquisition of a telomere maintenance mechanism which is usually dependent upon expression of the enzyme telomerase. About one third of in vitro immortalised human cell lines, however, have no detectable telomerase but contain telomeres that are abnormally long. The nature of the alternative telomere maintenance mechanism (referred to as ALT, for Alternative Lengthening of Telomeres) that must exist in these telomerase-negative cells has not been elucidated. It has previously been shown that abnormal lengthening of yeast telomeres may occur due to mutations in the yeast telomerase RNA gene. That this is not the mechanism of the abnormally long telomeres in ALT cell lines was demonstrated by the finding that seven of seven ALT lines have wild-type human telomerase RNA (hTR) sequence, including a novel polymorphism that is present in 30% of normal individuals. We found that two ALT cell lines have no detectable expression of the hTR gene. This shows that the ALT mechanism in these cell lines is not dependent on hTR. Expression of exogenous hTR via infection of these cells with a recombinant hTR-adenovirus vector did not result in telomerase activity, indicating that their lack of telomerase activity is not due to absence of hTR expression. We conclude that the ALT mechanism is not dependent on the expression of hTR, and does not involve mutations in the hTR sequence.      

Pilocytic astrocytomas have telomere-associated promyelocytic leukemia bodies without alternatively lengthened telomeres

Telomere maintenance by either telomerase activity or the recombination-mediated alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT) mechanism is a hallmark of cancer. Tumors that use ALT as their telomere maintenance mechanism are characterized by long telomeres of great heterogeneity in length and by specific nuclear structures of co-localized promyelocytic leukemia protein and telomere DNA, called ALT-associated promyelocytic leukemia bodies (APBs). Recent advances have revealed a direct role for APBs in telomere recombination in ALT-positive cells. In this study, we investigated the possibility that APBs could occur before the long 'alternatively' lengthened telomeres arise, particularly in low-grade tumors. We measured APBs, telomere length, and telomerase activity in 64 astrocytomas inclusive of grade 1-4 tumors. Almost all grade 1-3 tumors (93%) were APB-positive using published criteria. Grade 2-3 APB-positive tumors also had long telomeres and were confirmed as ALT positive. However, grade 1 tumors lacked long telomeres and were therefore classified as ALT negative, but positive for telomere-associated promyelocytic leukemia bodies (TPB). This is the first report of a TPB-positive but ALT-negative tumor, and suggests that low-grade tumors have the foundation for recombinational telomere repair, as in ALT. Further work is warranted to characterize the TPB-positive phenotype in other early malignancies, as well as to determine whether TPBs predispose to telomere maintenance by ALT.     

The Bloom syndrome helicase BLM interacts with TRF2 in ALT cells and promotes telomeric DNA synthesis

Telomerase-negative immortalized human cells maintain telomeres by alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT) pathway(s), which may involve homologous recombination. We find that endogenous BLM protein co-localizes with telomeric foci in ALT human cells but not telomerase positive immortal cell lines or primary cells. BLM interacts in vivo with the telomeric protein TRF2 in ALT cells, as detected by FRET and co-immunoprecipitation. Transient over-expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-BLM results in marked, ALT cell-specific increases in telomeric DNA. The association of BLM with telomeres and its effect on telomere DNA synthesis require a functional helicase domain. Our results identify BLM as the first protein found to affect telomeric DNA synthesis exclusively in human ALT cells and suggest that BLM facilitates recombination-driven amplification of telomeres in ALT cells.     

Divergent patterns of telomere maintenance mechanisms among human sarcomas: sharply contrasting prevalence of the alternative lengthening of telomeres mechanism in Ewing's sarcomas and osteosarcomas

Two types of telomere maintenance mechanisms (TMMs) have been described in human tumors: telomerase activation and alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT). Although the vast majority of epithelial tumors rely on telomerase activation, many mesenchymal tumors rely on ALT for telomere maintenance, but within this tumor group, the TMMs used by translocation-associated sarcomas have not been systematically studied. We studied telomere lengths and telomerase expression and activity in 30 uncultured tumor samples and in 10 cell lines of Ewing's sarcoma, a prototypical translocation-associated sarcoma, and compared the data to an identical analysis of 60 osteosarcomas, the most common type of sarcoma lacking a specific translocation. Telomerase activity was demonstrated in 21 Ewing's sarcoma tumor samples (70%) and in 9 of 10 Ewing's sarcoma cell lines. Evidence of ALT, indicated by the presence of long and heterogeneous telomeres, was observed only in the cell line without telomerase activity and in none of the 30 Ewing's sarcoma tumor samples. The 9 Ewing's sarcoma patients whose tumors lacked detectable telomerase activity did not differ significantly from the remaining patients in age, stage, EWSR1-FLI1 fusion type, prevalence of TP53 point mutations, or overall survival. The low prevalence of ALT in Ewing's sarcoma contrasted sharply with our data on TMMs in 60 osteosarcomas, which showed ALT in 38 of 60 cases (P<0.0001). The present study, together with emerging published data on other sarcoma types, suggests that a predominance of telomerase activation in the absence of ALT may characterize sarcomas with specific chromosomal translocations (such as Ewing's sarcoma), whereas a high prevalence of ALT appears typical of sarcomas with nonspecific complex karyotypes (such as osteosarcoma).     

Rad54 is dispensable for the ALT pathway

Some immortal cells use the alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT) pathway to maintain their telomeres instead of telomerase. Previous studies revealed that homologous recombination (HR) contributes to the ALT pathway. To further elucidate molecular mechanisms, we inactivated Rad54 involved in HR, in mouse ALT embryonic stem (ES) cells. Although Rad54-deficient ALT ES cells showed radiosensitivity in line with expectation, cell growth and telomeres were maintained for more than 200 cell divisions. Furthermore, although MMC-stimulated sister chromatid exchange (SCE) was suppressed in the Rad54-deficient ALT ES cells, ALT-associated telomere SCE was not affected. This is the first genetic evidence that mouse Rad54 is dispensable for the ALT pathway.     

Human Sarcomas Are Mosaic for Telomerase-Dependent and Telomerase-Independent Telomere Maintenance Mechanisms: Implications for Telomere-Based Therapies

Telomere shortening necessitates that tumor cells activate a telomere maintenance mechanism (TMM) to support immortalization. Although most tumor cells activate expression of the enzyme telomerase, some cells elongate telomeres in a telomerase-independent manner, termed alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT). Previous studies have evaluated the presence of telomerase or ALT mechanisms or both in a variety of tumor types. Our studies also show that TMMs are not mutually exclusive in some tumors. In contrast, our IHC analyses of human sarcomas identified a subset of tumors with some cells containing ALT-associated PML bodies, a hallmark of ALT, and separate cells expressing telomerase in the same tumor. By using a second set of human osteosarcomas, we merged IHC and biochemical analyses to characterize more fully the tumor TMM. The IHC data reveal the presence of both telomerase- and ALT-positive tumor cells in samples that demonstrate characteristics of both telomerase and ALT in biochemical assays. These assays, which measure telomere length and telomerase activity of tumor extracts, are conventionally used to classify tumor TMM. Our results suggest that TMM is not a single or perhaps static characteristic of some tumors and that TMM heterogeneity should be considered in tumor stratification. Furthermore, clinical interest in telomere-based therapies may necessitate accurate characterization of tumor TMM before treatment to maximize therapeutic efficacy.Activation of a telomere maintenance mechanism (TMM) is critical for tumor cell immortalization and cancer progression because telomeres shorten with each round of cellular division. Cells can use two known TMMs: catalytic activity of the enzyme telomerase or a telomerase-independent, recombination-based pathway termed alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT). In contrast to cells with active telomerase, cells that use ALT are characterized by long, heterogeneous telomere lengths, ALT-associated PML bodies (APBs), and extrachromosomal telomeric repeats. Several studies have evaluated TMMs in human tumors^1,2 and demonstrated that ALT is overrepresented in mesenchymal tumors,^2–12 perhaps reflective of a lack of detectable telomerase expression in mesenchymal stem cells.¹³ More specifically, almost 60% of osteosarcomas exhibit ALT characteristics,^3–6 the highest incidence of any tumor yet evaluated. In contrast, epithelial tumors more often express telomerase,^1,2 suggesting there may be cell-specific preferences for TMM.Studies have demonstrated that either type of TMM can occur within the same cell, but only with experimental manipulation. Exogenous expression of functional telomerase within some ALT cell lines results in telomerase-mediated elongation of short telomeres, although cells still retain ALT characteristics^14–16; studies in other ALT cell lines have shown that telomerase expression inhibits ALT characteristics.¹⁷ Fusion experiments of telomerase-expressing and ALT cells have shown that the mechanisms governing telomere maintenance are complex. Some telomerase-expressing cells contain ALT inhibitors other than telomerase itself, because only some hybrid cells suppress ALT markers and maintain telomeres exclusively with telomerase.¹⁶ Other experiments with hybrid cells demonstrate suppression of telomerase activity and maintenance of telomeres by ALT, suggesting that some ALT cells contain telomerase inhibitors.¹⁸ Similar observations have not been made in vivo.Most tumors exhibit characteristics of one TMM. However, most published studies that have classified human tumors have also identified a subset of tumors not definitively ALT or telomerase positive.^{3–6,9–12,19–23} These tumors display ambiguous characteristics regarding telomere length, telomerase activity, or the presence of APBs. Some tumors have long, heterogeneous telomere lengths, suggestive of ALT, but exhibit telomerase activity; this ambiguity confounds accurate TMM characterization. Furthermore, although previous studies have identified tumors exhibiting both telomerase activity and the presence of APBs,^10,11 suggesting that both telomerase and ALT cells are present in the sample, it has not been demonstrated whether these results indicate separate cell populations, infiltrating normal cells/normal surrounding tissue, or the presence of multiple TMMs in one cell. Therefore, we asked whether human sarcomas could demonstrate mosaicism for TMM by evaluating tumors at a cellular level.