Drug use,travel and HIV risk

A study was conducted to examine the travel experiences of a community sample of 160 drug users and 44 non-users recruited as part of a study of HIV risk. Of the sample, 47% (96/204) reported intercity travel in the previous ten years. Results showed that men were more likely to travel than women, Anglos more than minorities, and young persons more than old. When travellers testing HIV-seropositive (n = 13) were compared with seronegative travellers, HIV-positive travellers reported more sex while travelling than HIV-negative persons, but virtually all of the difference reported involved sex with condoms. There were no significant differences in sex risk behaviours while travelling between drug users and non-drug users, or in sex risk behaviors between drug injectors and non-injectors. Travellers had fewer injection partners while travelling than they had while at home. There was also a significant difference in number of sex partners with whom a condom was not used, with fewer sex partners while travelling.     

Drug use and HIV risk in Trinidad and Tobago: qualitative study

Crack use is an important risk factor for HIV infection because of its association with unsafe sexual practices. We investigated factors promoting the initiation of crack cocaine use; the sexual behaviour of crack users; and their rehabilitation care seeking behaviour in Trinidad and Tobago. We conducted 40 in-depth interviews with drug users. Respondents frequently reported a history of parental desertion, alcohol abuse, and physical abuse within the family. They perceived peer pressure and drug use in the family as important factors promoting first drug use. Exchanging sex for drugs was common, and practising oral sex was considered safe. Female drug users rarely seek rehabilitative care because of stigmatization and lack of care for their children. In Trinidad, attitudes towards drugs in society and families need to be changed. Campaigns promoting safer sex should emphasize the risk of oral sex. Rehabilitation facilities caring for female drug users should offer child care.     

Drug Network Characteristics and HIV Risk Among Injection Drug Users in Russia: The roles of Trust,Size, and Stability

We investigated the influence of drug network characteristics including trust, size, and stability on HIV risk behaviors and HIV testing among injection drug users (IDUs) in St. Petersburg, Russia. Overall, male and female IDUs who reported having high levels of trust in their drug networks were significantly more likely to share syringes than those with lower levels of trust (OR [95% CI]) 2.87 [1.06, 7.81] and 4.89 [1.05, 21.94], respectively). Male and female IDUs in larger drug networks were more likely to share syringes than those in smaller networks (4.21 [1.54, 11.51] and 4.80 [1.20, 19.94], respectively). Characteristics that were significantly associated with not having been HIV tested included drug network instability among men and larger network size among women. High trust, large size, and instability were positively and significantly associated with syringe sharing and not having been HIV tested. Effectiveness of interventions in Russia to reduce the risk of HIV infection may be enhanced if network characteristics are addressed.     

Drug use and HIV risk practices of secondary and primary needle exchange users.

This study examines HIV risk practices associated with secondary needle exchange, obtaining needles from a needle exchange program (NEP) through others who attend in person. We analyzed data from NEP logs, a survey and HIV testing from 901 drug injectors who (a) always visited NEPs themselves to get needles (primary-only NEP users), (b) obtained at least some NEP needles by having others exchange for them (mixed/secondary NEP users), and (c) obtained no needles from an NEP. About 22% of 40,000 NEP visits involved secondary exchanges, and these accounted for over half of all needles exchanged. In multiple logistic regression analyses, primary-only needle exchange was significantly associated with lower levels of receptive needle sharing, backloading, sharing other injection equipment and lending used needles, and positively associated with obtaining drug treatment. Mixed/secondary needle exchange was associated with less receptive needle sharing and a greater likelihood of drug treatment. Secondary exchange facilitated HIV risk reduction but the salutary effects of NEPs were attenuated in mixed/secondary exchangers.     

The roles of labor migrants' wives in HIV/AIDS risk and prevention in Tajikistan

This study aimed to build formative knowledge regarding labor migrants' wives' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors regarding HIV/AIDS risk and protection that would inform developing innovative HIV prevention strategies. This was a collaborative ethnography in Tajikistan that included minimally structured interviews and focused field observations with 30 Tajik wives in Dushanbe married to Tajik male migrant workers currently working in Moscow. The results documented the wives' concerns over their husbands' safety in Moscow and the difficulties of living without husbands. In a male-dominated society, gender norms limit the wives' abilities to protect themselves and their husbands from HIV/AIDS. They have some awareness of HIV/AIDS, but limited abilities to speak about sexual activity, HIV/AIDS, condoms, and HIV testing. Wives do not use condoms with their husbands and depend upon their husband's role as their protector. Wives often turn for support to their "circle of friends" or to a primary care nurse for support, but seldom do these relationships focus on preventing HIV/AIDS. To respond to HIV/AIDS risks amongst the wives of Tajik male migrant workers in Moscow, preventive interventions could build upon migrants' wives' role as the primary family caregiver and their existing sources of social support from women's circles and nurses. The overall intervention strategy could be to expand their role as family caregivers to include HIV/AIDS protection, through enhancing their HIV/AIDS knowledge and prevention skills and negotiation strategies with their husbands.     

HIV Genetic Diversity and Drug Resistance

Most of the current knowledge on antiretroviral (ARV) drug development and resistance is based on the study of subtype B of HIV-1, which only accounts for 10% of the worldwide HIV infections. Cumulative evidence has emerged that different HIV types, groups and subtypes harbor distinct biological properties, including the response and susceptibility to ARV. Recent laboratory and clinical data highlighting such disparities are summarized in this review. Variations in drug susceptibility, in the emergence and selection of specific drug resistance mutations, in viral replicative capacity and in the dynamics of resistance acquisition under ARV selective pressure are discussed. Clinical responses to ARV therapy and associated confounding factors are also analyzed in the context of infections by distinct HIV genetic variants.     

Norms and practices within marriage which shape gender roles, HIV/AIDS risk and risk reduction strategies in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique

Despite increasing HIV/AIDS rates among married individuals, minimal research has been conducted on how men and women respond to risk in a marriage. This paper examines strategies used by married individuals to combat HIV/AIDS risk against prevailing gender norms. Qualitative data were gathered in four villages of Cabo Delgado province, Mozambique. Group discussions were held with 160 men and women to explore gender norms, HIV/AIDS knowledge and risk determinants. From the group discussions, 29 individuals were selected for further in-depth interviews to explore relationships between gender norms and risk reduction efforts within marriages. Findings illustrate how infidelity and social limitations placed on condom use not only increase HIV/AIDS risk but also entrench gender disparities. Although power differences between genders can make it difficult to negotiate safe sex, men and women are taking measures to reduce perceived HIV/AIDS risk in their marriage. Married men are reconstructing norms and taking responsibility to protect their family from HIV/AIDS by remaining faithful. For women, responses to HIV/AIDS risk in a marriage are more closely related to their ability to generate an income. Financially dependent women tend to leave a risky marriage altogether in contrast to financially autonomous women who will negotiate condom use with their husband. Factors such as experience with a risky partner, the desire to maintain a good social standing, fear of HIV/AIDS acquisition and parental guidance and support influence men and women to reduce perceived HIV/AIDS risk, despite constraining gender norms and power imbalances in a marriage. Nuanced understandings of the ways in which men and women are already taking measures to decrease noted HIV/AIDS risk, despite gender norms that make this a challenge, should be incorporated into localised responses.     

Drug transporters in HIV Therapy

Drug transporter proteins play a crucial role in drug disposition. The P-glycoprotein drug efflux transporter is a determinant of oral bioavailability and central nervous system (CNS) penetration of protease inhibitors (PIs), and may affect drug penetration to other tissue compartments that can serve as sanctuaries for HIV. Potent and selective inhibitors of P-glycoprotein can dramatically increase PI CNS penetration. Polymorphisms in the MDR1 gene regulating P-glycoprotein expression are associated with differences in drug disposition, with some data indicating that different genotypes are associated with differences in plasma PI levels and magnitudes of CD4+ cell count recovery under therapy. The activity of drug transporters in modulating antiretroviral drug effects and the potential for exploiting this activity to maximize therapeutic benefit and minimize drug toxicity are the subjects of ongoing study. In addition, inhibition of transporter proteins may increase the risk of hepatotoxicity and other adverse drug effects and is being investigated. This article summarizes a presentation given by Richard B. Kim, MD, at the March 2003 International AIDS Society-USA course in Atlanta.     

Drug injecting and syringe use in the HIV risk environment of Russian penitentiary institutions: Qualitative study

BACKGROUND: Evidence highlights the prison as a high risk environment in relation to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission associated with injecting drug use. METHODS: We undertook qualitative studies among 209 injecting drug users (IDUs) in three Russian cities: Moscow (n = 56), Volgograd (n = 83) and Barnaul in western Siberia (n = 70). RESULTS: Over three-quarters (77%) reported experience of police arrest related to their drug use, and 35% (55% of men) a history of imprisonment or detention. Findings emphasize the critical role that penitentiary institutions may play as a structural factor in the diffusion of HIV associated with drug injection in the Russian Federation. While drugs were perceived to be generally available in penitentiary institutions, sterile injection equipment was scarce and as a consequence routinely shared, including within large groups. Attempts to clean borrowed needles or syringes were inadequate, and risk reduction was severely constrained by a combination of lack of injecting equipment availability and punishment for its possession. Perceptions of relative safety were also found to be associated with assumptions of HIV negativity, resulting from a perception that all prisoners are HIV tested upon entry with those found HIV positive segregated. CONCLUSION: This study shows an urgent need for HIV prevention interventions in the Russian penitentiary system.     

浙江省三个城市274例HAART病人耐药性及其影响因素

目的了解浙江省杭州、宁波、温州三个市艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染者/艾滋病(AIDS)(简称HIV/AIDS病人)高效抗反转录病毒治疗(HAART)后,HIV-1基因耐药性的影响因素。方法在三个治疗病人数最多的市,采用问卷调查和血液采集,检测病人病毒载量,对病毒载量大于1 000IU/mL的样本,进行反转录-聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)和扩增测序(In-house)法扩增测序,使用斯坦福大学HIV耐药数据库对比得到基因耐药结果。结果共274例研究对象纳入研究分析,HIV-1毒株总耐药率为7.7%。治疗时间1-3年的耐药率差异无统计学意义(χ2=0.554,P=0.456),治疗4-5年后,耐药率差异有统计学意义(P=0.004,P=0.028)。HIV-1毒株对核苷类(NRTI)和非核苷类(NNRTI)抗病毒治疗药物的耐药程度,明显高于蛋白酶抑制剂(PI)(χ2=29.672,P<0.001),核苷类反转录酶抑制剂与非核苷类相比,耐药程度无统计学差异(χ2=2.875,P=0.593)。在多因素Logistic回归模型分析中,吸毒、无固定性伴、治疗方案D4T+3TC+NVP和治疗方案AZT+3TC+NVP与耐药发生的关联具有统计学意义。结论浙江省进行HAART的AIDS病人,其体内毒株已经出现耐药现象,但耐药率处于较低水平。应加强对吸毒人群和无配偶或无固定性伴人群的随访,提高服药依从性,对各相关的治疗方案要加强监测,有利于降低耐药的发生。     

Drug scene in the Czech Republic and Slovakia during the period of transformation

The article describes the development of drug-related problems in the context of the rapid sociopolitical and economic changes in the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The period of the last decade is marked by an increase in drug use in both countries; 17% of adults in the Czech Republic and 12% of the Slovaks report lifetime drug use. The respective figures are even higher for the population of adolescents. According to the data from the ESPAD survey carried out in 1999, 35% of young Czechs and 19% of young Slovaks used marijuana. Metamphetamine is the most misused substance among problem drug users in the Czech Republic, and heroin dominates in Slovakia. The response of the society to social and health problems caused by drugs is discussed in the following areas: institutional differentiation, political coordination and legislative development. The need for further social research is stressed.     

Influencing HIV transmission risk

Research has shown that there are three primary factors that influence HIV risk behavior: biological, psychological, and social-environmental factors. Biological factors include molecular, genetic, and immunological variations that influence an individual's susceptibility to the virus. Biological factors are also influenced by the co-existence of other sexually transmitted diseases. Psychological factors include intrapersonal characteristics which promote risk-taking behaviors, such as an individual's response to stress or tendency towards substance abuse. Social-environmental factors include the context which surrounds interpersonal behaviors that may lead to HIV risk. Social-environmental factors may influence a person's decision regarding condom use or a person's compliance with safer sex practices.     

HIV Drug Resistance: Implications for Management

Selection of antiretroviral treatment based on drug resistance profile is a crucial element in maintaining optimal response to therapy in individual patients. Interpretation of results from resistance testing continues to increase in complexity with increasing numbers of resistance mutations and resistance mutational interactions identified, increasing numbers of drug used, and increasing prevalence of resistance in patients with recent infection and those taking antiretroviral therapy. At the International AIDS Society-USA course in San Francisco in June 2002, Scott M. Hammer, MD, presented cases to illustrate issues related to HIV resistance that are encountered in clinical practice, and he discussed management responses for these situations.     

Few Italian Drug Users Undergo HIV Testing

We estimated the proportion of drug users at treatment centres in Italy who had undergone HIV testing and the correlates of testing. Of the 1,917 drug injectors, 37.4% had been tested in the current year; of the 665 non-injectors, 28% had been tested. Among injectors, testing was associated with: being older than 35, foreign nationality, residing in central Italy, drug use for over 2 years, and having undergone both pharmacological and psychological treatment. Among non-injectors, an association was found for foreign nationality and not having been treated at other facilities. The results stress the need to facilitate access to testing.     

HIV and Depressive Symptoms Among Low-Income Illicit Drug Users

The study sought to assess the associations of HIV status, physical health status, current drug use, and gender with depressive symptoms in former and current illicit drug users. In 1994–1995, 503 individuals (188 HIV-infected; 191 females; 279 current drug users) were interviewed. Of HIV-infected participants, 70 were women and 96 were current drug users. Physical health status was measured by physical functioning (instrumental activities of daily living), CD4 count, AIDS, and HIV-related symptoms. Depressive symptoms were measured by the CES-D. Nearly two fifths (38%) reported a high level of depressive symptoms (CES-D 16). In multivariate analysis, impaired functioning (OR = 4.09, p < .001), HIV-related symptoms (OR = 3.09, p < .001), current drug use (OR = 1.59, p < .05), and history of mental illness (OR=3.22, p < .001) were independently associated with depressive symptoms. Gender and HIV status were not statistically significant. Detection and treatment of depression in drug using populations may improve quality of life and adherence to medical regimens.