Challenges of educating for medical professionalism: who should step up to the line?

Context  The teaching of professionalism has recently become an important issue in medical education. Medical professionalism remains controversial, but several recently published institutional documents on professionalism seem to express an implicit, yet broad consensus on three points: that professionalism mainly consists of adherence to a specific set of professional attributes constitutive of medical role morality and readily identifiable as virtues of medical professionalism (VMP); that medical education needs to focus on the endowment of these attributes, and that medical ethicists should play a central role in assuming this educational responsibility.
Methods  This paper examines the assumption that the task of supporting the development of the VMP should primarily fall to medical ethicists. Considerations in favour of this position are weighted against a set of countervailing considerations. The latter include the charge that the VMP are too vague as educational guidelines, that they may not be teachable, and that the responsibility for their development must be shared across the medical faculty.
Conclusions  Medical ethics educators are right to embrace the professionalism agenda on four conditions: that the limitations of addressing the formation of professional attributes in university-based teaching are recognised; that there is clinical as well as university-based evaluation of professional attributes; that the development of the VMP as a process of professional socialisation is seen as an interdisciplinary educational project, and that the examination and explanation of the cognitive grounds of the VMP are the focus of medical educators' activities.     

Defining generic objectives for community-based education in undergraduate medical programmes

RATIONALE: The availability of a framework for the definition of generic objectives for community-based education (CBE) programmes may assist in the rational design of objectives for specific CBE programmes. STRATEGY: Factors impacting on community health from the perspective of a developing country were collected. Potential assistance from medical students to communities to improve their health status was determined. Competencies required in students to execute tasks in the community were defined and eventually educational objectives to develop these competencies in the students were established. METHODS: Factors impacting on community health and activities of medical students in CBE programmes were identified by review of literature and Internet resources. Competencies desired for execution of tasks by students and educational objectives to develop these competencies were defined by us and checked against pertinent literature. A draft table representing the 4 elements of the framework was discussed by an international group of experts for external validation. MAIN OUTCOMES: A total of 26 factors impacting on community health were identified and clustered in 5 domains. Twenty-one generic objectives for CBE programmes were defined to develop the required competencies in students. Analogues of each of these 21 objectives were found in at least 1 publication specifying objectives for specific CBE programmes but none of these publications stated any objective not covered by our list of generic objectives. CONCLUSION: It proved possible to develop a framework to define generic objectives for CBE programmes. An example was elaborated from the perspective of a medical school in a developing country.     

Training Hungarian primary health care teachers: the relevance of a UK postgraduate course for health educators

OBJECTIVES: This study constituted a formative evaluation of the relevance of the MSc course to the needs of Hungarian primary health care educators. DESIGN: A qualitative, naturalistic approach using in-depth interviews was used to construct the meaning of the experience of the MSc for the Hungarian participants. Interviews were triangulated using observation and documentary analysis. SETTING: The University of Exeter's Institute of General Practice. SUBJECTS: Eight Hungarian primary health care professionals. RESULTS: The evaluation data revealed that the attitude of the Hungarian students to their role as medical educators had been substantially changed by exposure to western models of adult education. There were a number of 'clashes of expectation' between the Hungarian students and the course staff in relation to the course requirements. Reconciliation of these differing expectations required a sequence of ongoing adjustments to the course content and delivery. CONCLUSIONS: Existing postgraduate courses for health educators can accommodate the needs of medical teachers from countries who are developing their primary health care education systems. Successful accommodation is facilitated by ensuring an adequate preparation in relation to language fluency, academic requirements of the course, familiarization with modern approaches to adult education as well as with the local health care delivery system.     

The doctor dilemma in interprofessional education and care: how and why will physicians collaborate?

CONTEXT: Interprofessional educational (IPE) initiatives are seen as a means to engage health care professionals in collaborative patient-centred care. Given the hierarchical nature of many clinical settings, it is important to examine how the aims of formal IPE courses intersect with the socialisation of medical students into roles of responsibility and authority. OBJECTIVES: This article aims to provide an overview of doctor barriers to collaboration and describe aspects of medical education and socialisation that may limit doctor engagement in the goals of interprofessional education. Additionally, the paper examines the nature of team function in the health care system, reviewing different conceptual models to propose a spectrum of collaborative possibilities. Finally, specific suggestions are offered to increase the impact of interprofessional education programmes in medical education. DISCUSSION: An acknowledgement of power differentials between health care providers is necessary in the development of models for shared responsibility between professions. Conceptual models of teamwork and collaboration must articulate the desired nature of interaction between professionals with different degrees of responsibility and authority. Educational programmes in areas such as professionalism and ethics have shown limited success when formal and informal curricula significantly diverge. The socialisation of medical students into the role of a responsible doctor must be balanced with training to share responsibility appropriately. Doctor collaborative capacity may be enhanced by programmes designed to develop particular skills for which there is evidence of improved patient outcomes.     

Setting performance standards for medical practice: a theoretical framework

BACKGROUND: The assessment of performance in the real world of medical practice is now widely accepted as the goal of assessment at the postgraduate level. This is largely a validity issue, as it is recognised that tests of knowledge and in clinical simulations cannot on their own really measure how medical practitioners function in the broader health care system. However, the development of standards for performance-based assessment is not as well understood as in competency assessment, where simulations can more readily reflect narrower issues of knowledge and skills. This paper proposes a theoretical framework for the development of standards that reflect the more complex world in which experienced medical practitioners work. METHODS: The paper reflects the combined experiences of a group of education researchers and the results of literature searches that included identifying current health system data sources that might contribute information to the measurement of standards. CONCLUSION: Standards that reflect the complexity of medical practice may best be developed through an "expert systems" analysis of clinical conditions for which desired health care outcomes reflect the contribution of several health professionals within a complex, three-dimensional, contextual model. Examples of the model are provided, but further work is needed to test validity and measurability.     

Differences in curriculum emphasis in US undergraduate and generalist residency education programmes

OBJECTIVES: Little attention has been paid to the differential emphasis undergraduate and graduate medical education programmes place on the broad competencies that will be needed for practice in an increasingly managed health care environment. The purpose of this study was to determine differences in emphasis that undergraduate and primary care graduate medical education programmes are currently placing on 33 broad practice competencies, compared with the emphasis they ideally would like to give them, and the barriers they perceive to curriculum change. DESIGN: Subjects were surveyed by mailed questionnaire. A reminder postcard and follow-up mailing were sent to non-respondents. SETTING: US allopathic medical schools. SUBJECTS: Academic deans identified by the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) and generalist (family medicine, internal medicine, paediatrics and obstetrics-gynaecology) residency programme directors identified by the American Council on Graduate Medical Education (ACGME). RESULTS: Findings revealed that residency programmes placed greater emphasis on the study's broad curriculum topics than did undergraduate medical education programmes. Statistically significant differences were found in current emphasis for 12 topics and ideal emphasis for six topics. Both groups identified an already crowded curriculum and inadequate funding as the top two barriers to curriculum change. CONCLUSIONS: The differences in curriculum emphases and perceived barriers to curriculum change most probably reflect the different realities of undergraduate and graduate medical education programmes, i.e. academics vs. a focus on immediate practice realities.     

Components of postgraduate competence: analyses of thirty years of longitudinal data

CONTEXT: The conceptualisation and measurement of competence in patient care are critical to the design of medical education programmes and outcome assessment. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to examine the major components and correlates of postgraduate competence in patient care. METHODS: A 24-item rating form with additional questions about resident doctors' performance and future residency offers was used. Study participants comprised 4560 subjects who graduated from Jefferson Medical College between 1975 and 2004. They pursued their graduate medical education in 508 hospitals. We used a longitudinal study design in which the rating form was completed by programme directors to evaluate residents at the end of the first postgraduate year. Factor analysis was used to identify the underlying components of postgraduate ratings. Multiple regression, t-test and correlational analyses were used to study the validity of the components that emerged. RESULTS: Two major components emerged, which we labelled 'Knowledge and Clinical Capabilities' and 'Professionalism', and which addressed the science and art of medicine, respectively. Performance measures during medical school, scores on medical licensing examinations, and global assessment of Medical Knowledge, Clinical Judgement and Data-gathering Skills showed higher correlations with scores on the Knowledge and Clinical Capabilities component. Global assessments of Professional Attitudes and ratings of Empathic Behaviour showed higher correlations with scores on the Professionalism component. Offers of continued residency and evaluations of desirable qualities were associated with both components. CONCLUSIONS: Psychometric support for measuring the components of Knowledge and Clinical Capabilities, and Professionalism provides an instrument to empirically evaluate educational outcomes to medical educators who are in search of such a tool.     

A review of the evaluation of clinical teaching: new perspectives and challenges

PURPOSE: This article discusses the importance of the process of evaluation of clinical teaching for the individual teacher and for the programme. Measurement principles, including validity, reliability, efficiency and feasibility, and methods to evaluate clinical teaching are reviewed. CONTEXT: Evaluation is usually carried out from the perspective of the learner. This article broadens the evaluation to include the perspectives of the teacher, the patient and the institutional administrators and payers in the health care system and recommends evaluation strategies. RESULTS: Each perspective provides specific feedback on factors or attributes of the clinical teacher's performance in the domains of medical expert, professional, scholar, communicator, collaborator, patient advocate and manager. Teachers should be evaluated in all domains relevant to their teaching objectives; these include knowledge, clinical competence, teaching effectiveness and professional attributes. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Using this model of evaluation, a connection can be made between teaching and learning about all the expected roles of a physician. This can form the basis for systematic investigation into the relationship between the quality of teaching and the desired outcomes, the improvement of student learning and the achievement of better health care practice. It is suggested that the extent of effort and resources devoted to evaluation should be commensurate with the value assigned to the evaluation process and its outcomes.     

Short-term outcomes and long-term impact of a programme in medical education for medical students

Objectives  There is growing appreciation of the value of early preparation of future medical educators. Staff development programmes, conferences and workshops pertaining to the training of educators may be crucial to the pursuit of a school's larger educational mission to educate students, doctors and scholars and to provide comprehensive knowledge, research, patient care and service. This study examined the efficacy of a 1-week educational intervention aimed at preparing medical students to become effective doctor educators by building skills early in their careers. The study asked whether participation in a 5-day teacher training programme led to increased knowledge of instructional methods, more favourable attitudes towards teaching, and the integration of structured instructional design methods in a student-developed teaching project.
Methods  A mixed methods research design was employed with quantitative data captured through pre- and post-test inventories, qualitative components captured through written comments, and a 2-year post-intervention survey. Quantitative analyses included pre-/post-intervention repeated measures with calculated effect sizes. Qualitative analysis was conducted using constant comparative methods.
Results  Subjects demonstrated improved content knowledge and more positive attitudes towards motivation, teaching confidence, teacher roles, varied pedagogy, and use of assessment, instructional planning, and evaluation. Subjects were able to incorporate the programme's teaching theory and methods into their teaching projects and assessment of peers' and others' teaching in their own institutions 2 years post-training.
Conclusions  This study demonstrates that a well-designed programme for teacher preparation can be pedagogically effective for training medical students to become better educators and that this learning can be incorporated into long-term practice.     

Communication skills competencies: definitions and a teaching toolbox

BACKGROUND: Doctors' interpersonal and communication skills correlate with improved health care outcomes. International medical organisations require competency in communication skills. The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) developed a toolbox for assessing this competency and 5 others, yet none initially for teaching these skills. PURPOSE AND METHODS: The original focus in the development of the ACGME competencies was evaluation. This paper represents a significant step toward defining methods for teaching communication skills competencies. A total of 16 medical education leaders from medical schools worldwide, participating in the 2003 Harvard Macy Institute Program for Physician Educators, worked together to: (1) further define the ACGME competency in interpersonal and communication skills; (2) delineate teaching strategies for each level of medical education; and (3) create a teaching toolbox to integrate communication skills competencies into medical curricula. Four subgroups defined subcompetencies, identified teaching strategies for undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate medical training and brought their work to the larger group. The expanded communication competencies and teaching strategies were determined by a consensus of the larger group, presented to 80 Harvard Macy Scholars and Faculty for further discussion, then finalised by consensus. CONCLUSION: The teaching toolbox expands the ACGME core communication competencies, adds 20 subcompetencies and connects these competencies to teaching strategies at each level of medical training. It represents the collaboration and consensus of a diverse international group of medical education leaders in a variety of medical specialities and institutions, all involved in teaching communication skills. The toolbox is applicable globally across different settings and specialities, and is sensitive to different definitions of health care.     

Defining characteristics of educational competencies

Context  Doctor competencies have become an increasing focus of medical education at all levels. However, confusion exists regarding what constitutes a competency versus a goal, objective or outcome.
Objectives  This article attempts to identify the characteristics that define a competency and proposes criteria that can be applied to distinguish between competencies, goals, objectives and outcomes.
Methods  We provide a brief overview of the history of competencies and compare competencies identified by international medical education organisations (CanMEDS 2005, Institute for International Medical Education, Dundee Outcome Model, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education/American Board of Medical Specialties). Based upon this review and comparisons, as well as on definitions of competencies from the literature and theoretical and conceptual analyses of the underpinnings of competencies, the authors develop criteria that can serve to distinguish competencies from goals, objectives and outcomes.
Results  We propose 5 criteria which can be used to define a competency: it focuses on the performance of the end-product or goal-state of instruction; it reflects expectations that are external to the immediate instructional programme; it is expressible in terms of measurable behaviour; it uses a standard for judging competence that is not dependent upon the performance of other learners, and it informs learners, as well as other stakeholders, about what is expected of them.
Conclusions  Competency-based medical education is likely to be here for the foreseeable future. Whether or not these 5 criteria, or some variation of them, become the ultimate defining criteria for what constitutes a competency, they represent an essential step towards clearing the confusion that reigns.     

Medical error: a discussion of the medical construction of error and suggestions for reforms of medical education to decrease error

INTRODUCTION: There is a growing public perception that serious medical error is commonplace and largely tolerated by the medical profession. The Government and medical establishment's response to this perceived epidemic of error has included tighter controls over practising doctors and individual stick-and-carrot reforms of medical practice. DISCUSSION: This paper critically reviews the literature on medical error, professional socialization and medical student education, and suggests that common themes such as uncertainty, necessary fallibility, exclusivity of professional judgement and extensive use of medical networks find their genesis, in part, in aspects of medical education and socialization into medicine. The nature and comparative failure of recent reforms of medical practice and the tension between the individualistic nature of the reforms and the collegiate nature of the medical profession are discussed. CONCLUSION: A more theoretically informed and longitudinal approach to decreasing medical error might be to address the genesis of medical thinking about error through reforms to the aspects of medical education and professional socialization that help to create and perpetuate the existence of avoidable error, and reinforce medical collusion concerning error. Further changes in the curriculum to emphasize team working, communication skills, evidence-based practice and strategies for managing uncertainty are therefore potentially key components in helping tomorrow's doctors to discuss, cope with and commit fewer medical errors.     

CanMEDS evaluation in Canadian postgraduate training programmes: tools used and programme director satisfaction

Context The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) CanMEDS framework is being incorporated into specialty education worldwide. However, the literature on how to evaluate trainees in the CanMEDS competencies remains sparse. Objectives The goals of this study were to examine the assessment tools used and programme directors’ perceptions of how well they evaluate performance of the CanMEDS roles in Canadian postgraduate training programmes. Methods We conducted a web‐based survey of programme directors of RCPSC‐accredited training programmes. The survey consisted of two questions. Question 1 was designed to establish which assessment tools were used to assess each of the CanMEDS roles. Question 2 was intended to assess programme directors’ perceived satisfaction with CanMEDS evaluation in their programmes. Results A total of 149 of the eligible 280 programme directors participated in the survey. Programme directors used a variety of assessment tools to evaluate trainees in CanMEDS competencies. Programmes used more tools to evaluate the Medical Expert (mean = 4.03, standard deviation [SD] = 1.59) and Communicator (mean = 2.36, SD = 1.02) roles. Programme directors used the fewest tools for the Collaborator (mean = 1.75, SD = 1.10) and Manager (mean = 1.75, SD = 1.18) roles. More than 92% of the programmes used in‐training evaluation reports to evaluate all the CanMEDS roles. Programme directors were satisfied with their evaluation of the Medical Expert role, but less so with assessment of the other CanMEDS competencies. Conclusions This study demonstrates that Canadian postgraduate training programmes use a variety of assessment tools to evaluate the CanMEDS competencies. Programme directors are neutral or concerned about how the CanMEDS roles other than that of Medical Expert are evaluated in their programmes. Further efforts are required to establish best practice in CanMEDS evaluation.     

The first sunrise: an experience of cultural immersion and community health needs assessment by undergraduate medical students in New Zealand

CONTEXT: Cultural factors in health and illness, and an awareness of community health needs analysis, are important issues for medical education. Both have received relatively little recognition in the medical education literature. This paper describes the development of an educational attachment to remote predominantly Maori rural communities in New Zealand. The twin purposes of the programme were to encourage students to adopt broad public health approaches in assessing the health needs of defined communities, and to increase their awareness of the importance of cultural issues. METHODS: During a one week attachment, 51 students from the Wellington School of Medicine were hosted in six small communities in the East Cape region of New Zealand. Students gained an insight into the health needs of the communities and were encouraged to challenge their own attitudes, assumptions and thinking regarding the determinants of health and the importance of cultural factors in health and illness. The programme included both health needs assessment and cultural immersion. Students made visits with primary health care professionals and were also introduced to Maori history and cultural protocol, and participated in diverse activities ranging from the preparation of traditional medicines to performing their own songs in concert. CONCLUSIONS: The students evaluated the course extremely highly. Attachments of this sort provide an opportunity for students to appreciate how cultural values have an impact on health care, and how they also make the teaching and learning of topics such as community health needs analysis an enjoyable and dynamic experience.     

Can medical students contribute to quality assurance programmes in day surgery?

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVES: Health care delivery has undertaken a major shift from inpatient management to ambulatory surgical care with increasing emphasis on quality assurance (QA) processes. Educational opportunities for medical undergraduate programmes are being sought in the day surgery environment. Our study was undertaken to explore ways in which senior medical students can actively contribute to QA processes as part of an undergraduate day surgery educational programme. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Health care delivery has undertaken a major shift from inpatient management to ambulatory surgical care with increasing emphasis on quality assurance (QA) processes. Educational opportunities for medical undergraduate programmes are being sought in the day surgery environment. Our study was undertaken to explore ways in which senior medical students can actively contribute to the QA processes as part of an undergraduate day surgery educational programme. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Fifty-nine final year medical students followed allocated patients with common surgical conditions through all phases of the day surgery process. Students kept records about each case in a log book and also presented their cases at weekly Problem Based Learning tutorials. An audit of student log books and review of tutorial records was conducted for the 1996 and 1997 academic years, in order to evaluate student contribution to QA. RESULTS: Students followed 621 cases, representing a sampling of 14. 1% day surgery cases. Categories of problems highlighted by students included inappropriate patient and procedure selection, inadequate pain management, discharge, communication and resource issues. Students made a number of recommendations including the development of multilingual videotapes and patient information sheets for non-English speaking patients, avoidance of bilateral surgical procedures and improved links with local medical officers. They also developed new guidelines and protocols. CONCLUSIONS: Our study confirms that students are able to identify QA issues and propose solutions. We recommend that students have a formally recognized place in day surgery QA programmes, to close the QA loop and to adequately prepare them for medical practice in the 21st century.     

Evidence-based practice: a review of theoretical assumptions and effectiveness of teaching and assessment interventions in health professions

Health care professionals are expected to use a systematic approach based on evidence, professional reasoning and client preferences in order to improve client outcomes. In other words, they are expected to work within an evidence-based practice (EBP) context. This expectation has had an impact on occupational therapy academic programs’ mandates to prepare entry-level clinicians who demonstrate competence in the knowledge, skills and behaviors for the practice of evidence-based occupational therapy. If the EBP approach is to be entrenched in the day to day practice of future clinicians, a pedagogically sound approach would be to incorporate EBP in every aspect of the curriculum. This, however, would require a comprehensive understanding of EBP: its basis, the principles that underpin it and its effectiveness in promoting core professional competencies. The existing literature does not elucidate these details nor does it shed light on how requisite competencies for EBP are acquired in professional education in general and in occupational therapy education in particular. Drawing from educational psychology and EBP in the health professions, this paper provides a critical review of the evidence that supports EBP and the effectiveness of EBP teaching and assessment interventions in professional heath sciences programs and offers suggestions for the design of EBP instruction, grounding recommendations in educational theory for the health professions.     

Linking assessment to learning: a new route to quality assurance in medical practice

BACKGROUND: If continuing professional development is to work and be sensible, an understanding of clinical practice is needed, based on the daily experiences of doctors within the multiple factors that determine the nature and quality of practice. Moreover, there must be a way to link performance and assessment to ensure that ongoing learning and continuing competence are, in reality, connected. Current understanding of learning no longer holds that a doctor enters practice thoroughly trained with a lifetime's storehouse of knowledge. Rather a doctor's ongoing learning is a 'journey' across a practice lifetime, which involves the doctor as a person, interacting with their patients, other health professionals and the larger societal and community issues. OBJECTIVES: In this paper, we describe a model of learning and practice that proposes how change occurs, and how assessment links practice performance and learning. We describe how doctors define desired performance, compare actual with desired performance, define educational need and initiate educational action. METHOD: To illustrate the model, we describe how doctor performance varies over time for any one condition, and across conditions. We discuss how doctors perceive and respond to these variations in their performance. The model is also used to illustrate different formative and summative approaches to assessment, and to highlight the aspects of performance these can assess. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude by exploring the implications of this model for integrated medical services, highlighting the actions and directions that would be required of doctors, medical and professional organisations, universities and other continuing education providers, credentialling bodies and governments.     

The WISDOM project: training primary care professionals in informatics in a collaborative ''virtual classroom''

OBJECTIVES: The WISDOM project applies Internet technologies to create a virtual classroom in health informatics for primary care professionals. Participants use a facilitated E-mail discussion list supported by a web site which provides on-line resources and an archive of teaching materials. DESIGN: The project took an adult-learning model in which participants identify their learning needs, emphasized using informatics skills in practice, and focused on skills likely to enhance evidence-based practice. The paper describes the project and an evaluation of the first programme which ran in 1997 with 28 participants. Pre- and post-intervention questionnaires were used to assess perceived skills in informatics and evidence-based practice. SETTING: University of Sheffield. SUBJECTS: Primary care professionals. RESULTS: Participants reported statistically significant increases in eight informatics skills. There were no significant changes in evidence-based practice skills. The web-site, seminar programme and discussion list were highly rated as useful in delivering informatics training. CONCLUSIONS: The WISDOM approach is effective for the delivery of informatics training to primary care professionals, and may be used more widely for other subjects and professional groups. There is a need for further research into facilitating virtual classrooms.     

Medical education in the community--the UNITRA experience

The creation of the independent black state of Transkei, under the apartheid regime, resulted in inadequate allocation of resources to the region. These inequalities were translated into health care. Despite these limitations, over the last five years an innovative community-based educational programme involving medical students, nurses and health educators is evolving at the relatively new medical school in this region. This programme, however, has not been free of difficulties. There is an urgent need to address these issues using a combination of administrative, educational and research approaches. This would provide a strong basis for the further development of this educational programme that could serve as a unique South African example of medical education in the community.