国人隆乳术前后乳房相关参数的变化

为了掌握隆乳术后乳房及相关部位体表参数的变化规律，借以为手术设计提供依据，预测术后效果，指导临床工作。通过对受术者进行术前、术后乳房及相关部位体表测量，应用ＧＲＡＦＴＯＯＬ软件对数据进行分析，获得标准体形及身高与胸围的关系曲线和隆乳术前后经乳头胸围标准参数的变化数值。结果发现，我国（尤其是南方）隆乳受术者，乳房及胸廓的发育状况与标准体形相差甚大。矮身材者通过隆乳术，其胸围可达到美学标准，而高身材者由于受自身条件的限制及审美观点的差异，其胸围难以达到美学标准。     

Measurement of the volume of the pedicled TRAM flap in immediate breast reconstruction.

The transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap is now accepted as the standard for breast reconstruction, but achieving symmetrical breast reconstruction is still a challenge. A precise estimate of the volume of the flap is necessary to reconstruct a symmetrical and aesthetically pleasing breast. Many methods have been developed to overcome this problem, but they have not been suitable for the pedicled TRAM flap. By using a self-made device based on the Archimedes' principle, the authors can calculate accurately the volume of the pedicled TRAM flap and predict reliably the breast volume intraoperatively. The "procedure" is based on a self-made box into which the pedicled TRAM flap is placed. Warm saline is added to the box and the flap is then removed. Flap volume is calculated easily by determining the difference between the preestimated volume of the box and the volume of the residual water. From February to May 2000, this method was used on 28 patients to predict breast volume for breast reconstruction. This study revealed that the difference of the maximal chest circumferences (the index of the breast volume) demonstrates a positive correlation with the difference of the volumes and weights between the mastectomy specimen and the net TRAM flap. However, a more closely positive correlation exists between the differences of maximal chest circumference volume (r = 0.677) than maximal chest circumference weight (r = 0.618). These data reveal that the reconstructed breast's volume has a closer relationship with the volume of the net pedicled TRAM flap, rather than with its weight.     

McGhan解剖型乳房假体参数系统改进与手术技巧

目的：总结自2000年以来323只应用和改进McGhan解剖型假体参数系统的经验与手术技巧.方法：为便于国人个性化选用假体,将Tebbetts的经验参数系统加以改进.原则上：215g左右为起点,中突为主;分别以乳头至胸骨上切迹（SN-N）和乳头至中线（ML-N）决定假体长宽,身高作为参考.SN-N：19cm以上多选高长（FL,FM,FF）,19～17cm多选中长（ML,MM,MF）,17cm以下多选低长（LL,LM,LF）;ML-N：ML-N宽度＋2cm=假体宽度;身高：165cm以上多选高长,165～160cm多选中长,160cm以下多选低长.植入技巧是正面标记的两点要最后放入,且上点位于乳晕切口下1～2cm为宜,腺体越少标记点越应偏低.结果：323只假体中,MM型和体积205～235g最为常用;以乳晕切口为主（89.5%）;半数多置于腺体下;随访半个月～4年,103例（两个月以上87例）中无1例变形,但3例中等硬度,其中1例需手术松解矫正.外形均较满意.结论：解剖型假体的问世完全改变了传统圆形假体只有体积选择的概念,可通过不等比例的改变非正圆形假体的高、宽、突和体积参数,相对更自然、更科学的隆乳.     

Hypertension in primary immunoglobulin A nephropathy (Berger's disease): hemodynamic alterations and mechanisms

Twenty-two patients with primary IgA nephropathy (Berger's disease), 12 with normal and 10 with high blood pressure, were studied. The mean intra-arterial pressure was 88 +/- 6 mm Hg in the normotensive group and 113 +/- 10mm Hg in hypertensive patients; plasma renin activity was high in normotensives and normal in hypertensives. The glomerular filtration rate was 83 +/- 23 and 73 +/- 26 ml/m in 1.73 m2 in normotensive and hypertensive patients, respectively (p = n.s.). Blood volume was high in IgA nephropathy patients: 82 +/- 12 ml/kg body weight in normotensives and 96 +/- 7 ml/kg body weight in hypertensives. Mean arterial pressure was significantly correlated with blood volume (r = 0.541, p less than 0.01), but not with plasma renin activity and glomerular filtration rate. The cardiac index was high in both groups: 4.20 +/- 0.88 liters/min/m2 in normotensive and 3.95 +/- 0.87 liters/min/m2 in hypertensive patients. The total peripheral resistance index was significantly lower than normal in normotensives (1,659 +/- 387 dyn/s/cm-5/m2) and significantly higher (2,419 +/- 562 dyn/s/cm-5 m2) in hypertensives. The cardiac index did not correlate with blood volume and mean arterial pressure; a positive correlation was found between mean arterial pressure and peripheral vascular resistance (r = 0.630, p less than 0.01). No correlation was observed between blood volume and plasma renin activity. Our study indicates that hypertension in IgA nephropathy is primarily volume dependent, and that this increase in blood volume is not related to the deterioration of renal function. The role of the renin-angiotensin system in the maintenance of the hypertension is not well-defined.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

How to estimate the size of the donor liver

Abstract  Of readily available methods to estimate the donor liver size, measurement of the body circumference at the xiphoid level (xiphoid measure) appeared to be the most accurate in the present prospective study of 60 donors and 57 recipients ( r = 0.64, P = 0.0001). The estimated liver volume could be calculated using the equation: bloodless liver volume (1) = 1.44 x xiphoid measure (m). The difference between donor and recipient xiphoid measures was significantly higher in slowly recovering patients than in those recovering uneventfully (7 ± 7 cm vs. - 5 ± 8 cm, P < 0.001). The bloodless donor liver volume measured by water displacement averaged 1249 k 230 ml and had increased by 3 weeks post-transplant by 64 ± 28 % as determined using computed tomography. The volume of the liver graft seemed to adapt to the recipient as it correlated positively with body weight ( r = 0.64, P < 0.01) and negatively with the age of the recipient (r = - 0.42, P < 0.01). The liver graft volume seemed to increase less markedly in patients with a slow recovery than in those with an uncomplicated recovery (37 %±15 % vs. 68 %± 24 %, P< 0.001). We conclude that a simple measurement of the body circumference at the xiphoid level can be used to estimate the donor liver volume. A gross mismatch of this parameter between the donor and the recipient seems to increase the risk of graft dysfunction. We also found that the change in the liver graft volume is influenced by the recipient's age and body weight.     

成人标准肝体积预测公式的初步构建

目的 建立一个预测中国成人标准肝体积的公式.方法 收集2005年3月至2007年12月90例活体肝移植供者的临床资料,包括供者的性别(G)、年龄(Y)、身高(BH)、体重(BW)和术前CT扫描测量的全肝体积(TLV).分析TLV与上述其他指标的相关性,通过多重逐步线性回归得出预测标准肝体积的回归方程.并比较该公式和文献报道的公式预测的标准肝体积(ESLV)之间是否有差异.结果 90例供者的平均体重为(62.4±8.7)kg,平均TLV为(1319.1±167.0)ml,二者成正相关(r=0.655,P<0.01),可用公式TLV(ml)=12.5×BW(kg)+536.4来表示.与已发表文章中的公式相比,ESLV与TLV的差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05).结论 该研究建立了一个简单的更准确的预测中国成人标准肝体积的公式.     

隆乳术乳房假体容积的测算

以往隆乳术选择植入假体容积，常常仅凭经验、目测作粗略估算。为使手术效果既符合公认的美学要求，又能满足病人期望，希望找到一种较精确的计算乳房假体容积的方法。将近年来接受隆乳术病人的术前、术后乳房体表相关测量指标、乳房体积及假体容积等有关数据，经ＧＲＡＦＴＯＯＬ软件进行处理、分析，获得隆乳术病人术前、术后身高与胸围的关系曲线；术后胸围与术后双侧乳房总体积的关系曲线及回归方程。根据回归方程计算，再结合病人的身高、术前的胸围、乳房体积以及自己对术后乳房大小的要求，即可较精确地测算出植入假体的容积。这一计算方法，通过大量临床病例的验证，获得了满意的效果。     

The use of a combined technique in reduction mammaplasty (inferior pyramidal and superior glandular techniques)

The management of mammary hypertrophy is a developing process. The common surgical options for reduction mammaplasty include amputation with free nipple graft as well as the bipedicled, inferior pedicle and vertical pedicle techniques. All techniques are used widely. Disadvantages of these procedures include nipple areola necrosis, insensitivity, hypopigmentation, and poor breast projection. Even with the standard modifications of the original techniques, the resultant breast and nipple may be wide and flat. The purpose of this study was to assess whether combined inferior pyramidal pedicle and superior glandular pedicle reduction mammaplasty can optimize nipple and breast projection. Attention will focus on the viability and sensation of the nipple areola complex. Nine patients with mammary hypertrophy were studied. The change in nipple position ranged from 7 to 13 cm. The amount of tissue removed from each breast ranged from 500 to 1150 g. Nipple/areola sensation was retained in all cases with the exception of one breast. Nipple/areola necrosis or hypopigmentation were not observed. Optimal central breast projection was maintained in all patients, and postoperative evaluation was carried out at 12 and 22 months. The patient satisfaction was very high.     

富血小板血浆联合自体脂肪移植多层次多隧道注射治疗哺乳后乳腺萎缩的临床观察

目的:探讨富血小板血浆(Platelet-rich plasma,PRP)结合自体脂肪移植多层次、多隧道注射治疗哺乳后乳腺萎缩的临床疗效。方法:2016年3月-2018年3月,共72例要求改善哺乳后乳腺萎缩的女性就医者,均采用PRP结合自体脂肪移植多层次、多隧道注射隆乳。抽取外周静脉血制备PRP,于大腿及臀、腹部获取自体脂肪颗粒并静置纯化,以1:20比例混合PRP与自体脂肪颗粒,将PRP-脂肪颗粒多隧道注射于乳腺后、胸大肌后及皮下,每次单侧注射量约150~200ml,间隔半年左右再次注射,视个人情况及要求注射1~2次。结果:术后随访1~3年,14例首次注射术后半年仍觉不够饱满,进行二次补充注射后效果满意;4例首次注射后3个月出现局部少量脂肪结节,局部按摩及热敷处理后结节消失;其余就医者均恢复良好,乳房体积明显增加,形态挺拔自然,均未出现术后移植脂肪感染、坏死、血肿形成等并发症。术前测量平均胸围值为(88±1.5)cm,术后6个月测量平均胸围值为(93±1.2)cm,术后12个月为(92±1.1)cm,术前与术后6个月、12个月比较差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:PRP结合自体脂肪移植多层次、多隧道注射治疗哺乳后乳腺萎缩临床疗效良好,并发症少,术后乳房形态挺拔,手感自然,值得临床应用。     

Patient satisfaction following nipple reconstruction incorporating autologous costal cartilage

BACKGROUND:

Nipple-areolar reconstruction completes post-mastectomy breast reconstruction. Many techniques for nipple reconstruction have been described, and each has their advocates and critics. One of the frequent failings of most designs is loss of nipple projection with time.

OBJECTIVES:

To determine the effect of including autologous costal cartilage on patient satisfaction with their nipple reconstruction.

METHODS:

Sixty-eight patients were identified who had undergone fishtail flap nipple reconstruction following autologous free flap breast reconstruction between 1990 and 2004. Qualitative questionnaires, using Likert scales, were sent to each patient to specifically assess their satisfaction with their nipple reconstruction.

RESULTS:

Of 26 respondents (mean ± SEM follow-up period 3.7±3.6 years), 13 had undergone nipple reconstruction incorporating costal cartilage banked at the time of initial breast reconstruction, and the other 13 had no cartilage in their nipple reconstructions. While both groups would opt for nipple reconstruction again, patients with cartilage grafts incorporated into their reconstructions had overall satisfaction ratings 1.92 grades higher on average (not significant, P=0.12) than those without. This difference increased to 3.2 grades when the satisfaction of the patient’s partner was taken into account (P<0.05). Improved satisfaction corresponded to higher scores for volume, consistency, texture, and particularly for projection and contour of the nipple (P<0.05). Although nipple morphology changed over time, there was a trend toward improved stability in the cartilage group.

CONCLUSIONS:

Patient satisfaction with nipple reconstruction can be improved by incorporating costal cartilage beneath the skin flaps. Superior contour and projection are sustained over time.     

Validating three-dimensional imaging of the breast

The potential to extrapolate accurate data from 3-dimensional (3D) images of the breast is enormous and will greatly improve our ability to qualitatively determine differences in shape, size, and contour. The validity of these calculated measurements is important and needs to be determined before any meaningful data can be evaluated. PART I: Premastectomy 3D images (3dMD patient) were obtained on 19 breasts (14 patients). The volume of the mastectomy specimen was determined intraoperatively using water displacement. Two independent raters then calculated breast volumes using the 3D images and software, and these were compared with the intraoperative volume. Inter- and intrarater reliability was determined. Part II: Surface measurements (nipple to notch) were then evaluated on 20 breasts (10 patients) by comparing the 3D image determined distance to the known measurements. PART I: The average breast volume was 500 mL, compared with 489 mL for rater 1 and 490 mL for rater 2. The relative difference between the measured volume and the calculated volume for rater 1 and rater 2 was about -2%, with a standard deviation of +/- 13% to 16%. The coefficient of reproducibility for each reader was excellent, at 0.80 for rater 1 and 0.92 for rater 2. The level of agreement between the readers was also high at 0.975. Part II: The average nipple to notch measurement for each patient was 27.1 cm, compared the calculated average of 25.1 cm for rater 1 and 26.1 cm for rater 2. The mean relative difference between the measured and calculated distances for raters 1 and 2 was about -6%, with a standard deviation of +/- 6% to 7%. The level of agreement between readers was high, at 0.975. The ability to objectively determine breast volume and surface measurements using 3D imaging technology is now available with consistent and reproducible accuracy. Measurements are typically underestimated, with more variability when calculating volumes. Although inherent subjectivity will always exist when evaluating breast measurements, 3D technology provides invaluable information, particularly in the longitudinal evaluation of results.     

Long-term follow-up of a modified Anton-Hartrampf nipple reconstruction

This study was performed to determine the degree of shrinkage over time in nipple projection after reconstruction. Nipple-areolar reconstruction was performed using the modified Anton-Hartrampf technique, and pigmentation was achieved with tattooing. This study looked at 28 consecutive patients with nipple reconstruction performed at The Milton S. Hershey Medical Center of the Penn State Geisinger Health Systems between September 1989 and November 1993. Two patients were lost to follow-up and 3 patients died of breast cancer. Thus, 23 patients and a total of 32 nipples were investigated. Initial measurements of nipple projection were taken 2 weeks postoperatively. Patients were followed an average of 38.7 months (range, 11-66 months). Ten patients (18 nipples) had tissue expansion and implantation for breast mound reconstruction. Thirteen patients (14 nipples) had autologous breast mound reconstruction. The mean decrease in projection of the tissue expansion and implantation group was 76.7+/-9.7%. The mean decrease in projection of the autologous reconstruction group was 64.3+/-12.1%. The mean decrease in projection for the entire group was 71.3+/-21.9%. Comparison between the two groups using a two-sample t-test showed p = 0.0047. The authors concluded that there is a significant reduction in nipple projection over time using the modified Anton-Hartrampf technique regardless of the type of breast mound reconstruction. In addition, their results also indicated that nipple projection on the breast mound reconstructed with an autologous musculocutaneous flap technique achieved a better long-term outcome. This study is potentially helpful in planning the initial size of the reconstructed nipple papule to match the opposite normal nipple. Additional studies need to be performed on other types of nipple-areolar reconstruction.     

Prediction of quadruple hamstring graft diameter for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction by anthropometric measurements

Background:

The literature is scanty regarding the anthropometric predictors on the diameter of quadruple hamstring graft obtained in anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction in Indian population. Minimum diameter of the graft for ACL reconstruction should be >7 mm to preclude failure. The objective of this study was to assess the prediction of the hamstring graft diameter by several anthropometric parameters including age, thigh circumference, weight, height and body mass index (BMI).

Materials and Methods:

46 consecutive patients who had undergone ACL reconstruction by the same surgeon using quadruple hamstring grafts were evaluated. The age, thigh circumference of the normal side, height, weight and BMI were recorded preoperatively and Pearson correlation was done using these parameters with graft diameter measured intraoperatively. Regression analysis in a stepwise manner was undertaken to assess the influence of individual anthropometric parameters on the graft diameter.

Results:

There were 44 males and 2 females. Mean age was 29.4 years, mean height was 172.6 cm, mean weight was 70.9 kg, mean BMI was 23.8 kg/m², mean thigh circumference was 47.1 cm and mean graft diameter was 7.9 mm. There was a positive correlation individually between the thigh circumference and graft diameter obtained (r = 0.8, P < 0.01, n = 46), and between the height and graft diameter (r = 0.8, P < 0.01, n = 46). On the regression analysis thigh circumference and height were found to be significant predictors of graft diameter giving the following equation: Graft diameter (mm) = 0. 079 height (cm) +0.068 thigh circumference (cm) −9.031.

Conclusion:

Preoperatively using the above equation if graft diameter came out to be <7 mm then alternate options of graft material must be kept in mind in order to prevent failure.     

Urodynamic and clinical outcome of Kock pouch continent urinary diversion

Urodynamic studies of the Kock pouch were conducted in 20 patients 3 to 36 months after radical cystectomy and urinary diversion for invasive bladder cancer. Functional pouch capacity, intrapouch pressure, maximal nipple pressure, maximal nipple closure pressure and functional nipple length with the pouch filled to capacity were measured. Intermittent involuntary pressure spikes resembling bowel peristaltic waves occurred in 5 patients (25 per cent). The mean functional pouch capacity was 280.0 +/- 119.2 ml. (standard deviation) and mean maximal intra-pouch pressure was 41.0 +/- 11.0 cm. water in patients with involuntary pressure spikes. In patients without involuntary pressure spikes these values were 332.7 +/- 114.5 ml. and 11.6 +/- 4.8 cm. water, respectively. For all patients the mean maximal nipple pressure was 72.1 +/- 24.6 cm. water, the mean maximal nipple closure pressure was 58.8 +/- 23.1 cm. water and the mean functional nipple length was 3.4 +/- 0.9 cm. A functional nipple length of less than or equal to 2.5 cm. and/or a low maximal nipple closure pressure (less than 40 cm. water) correlated with a small functional pouch capacity (less than 200 ml.) in 5 patients. Clinically, these 5 patients also required frequent catheterization to provide continence. A maximal nipple closure pressure greater than 60 cm. water and an adequate functional nipple length (greater than 3.0 cm.) correlated with a rather large functional pouch capacity (more than 350 ml.). The degree of continence provided by the Kock pouch appeared to be determined by functional nipple length, maximal nipple closure pressure, functional pouch capacity and maximal intrapouch pressure.     

Anatomic variation and asymmetry in female anterior thoracic contour: an analysis of 50 consecutive computed tomography scans

This study examines the prevalence of anatomic variation and asymmetry in female thoracic contour and evaluates their effect on breast projection. A consecutive series of 50 female cross-sectional thoracic computed tomography (CT) scans was examined at the level of the fourth rib. Patients with thoracic wall trauma (including surgery) were excluded. Lateral width, anterior-posterior diameter, and 3 internal angles were compared bilaterally and were used to evaluate overall shape and thoracic contour. All patients demonstrated some degree of asymmetry between their right and left sides. A wide range of thoracic shapes was observed. Patients with sloped anterior chest walls have lateral projection of the nipple, while patients with flatter chest walls have anterior projection of the nipple. Evaluating anterior chest wall slope prior to augmentation can help physicians predict postoperative breast projection and thus prepare their patients for the future breast appearance and the potential for contact cleavage.     

Microanatomy of milk ducts in the nipple

The aim of this study was to determine number and diameter of milk ducts in the nipple and to investigate the possible influences of age, breast weight, and diameter of the nipple on the number of ducts. Two hundred and twenty-six carcinoma mastectomy specimens were weighed and the nipple diameters measured. The number of ducts was counted in histological cross sections. Mean diameter of the nipple and mean breast weight were 13.9 mm and 844.6 g, respectively. There was a small but statistically significant positive correlation between nipple diameter and number of milk ducts (rho = 0.158; p = 0.01), but no correlation with breast weight. The mean number of ducts in the nipple duct bundle was 17.5. This is significantly higher than the number of ducts reported to open on the nipple surface. This discrepancy could reflect duct branching within the nipple or the presence of some ducts which do not reach the nipple surface. Smaller breast ducts (diameter < 0.5 mm) represent nearly 50% of the nipple ducts and could be a challenge to the ductoscopy technology.     

Appropriate cuff volumes of the Laryngeal Tube

The manufacturer of the Laryngeal Tube (VBM, Germany) states that the cuffs should be inflated until the intracuff pressure reaches 60 cmH(2)O or with a certain volume of air (60 ml for the size 3 and 80 ml for size 4). We studied 100 patients to investigate this. In addition, we examined whether the patient's height or weight could be a predictor of the required volume. Following insertion of a laryngeal tube, the cuff volume at the intracuff pressure 60 cmH(2)O was measured. The mean (SD) volume was 62 (7.2) ml for size 3 and 84 (11.2) ml for size 4. There was a correlation between the height of the patient and the cuff volume (correlation coefficient = 0.64; p < 0.01; volume (ml) = -86.5 + 1.02 height (cm)), and between the patient's weight and the cuff volume (correlation coefficient = 0.37; p < 0.01; volume (ml) = 45.3 + 0.558 weight (kg)). The required volume for size 3 was < 60 ml in nine of 27 patients (33%), and for size, 4 < 80 ml in 20 of 73 patients (27%). Our results support the manufacturer's recommended cuff volumes, but if the cuff is inflated with these fixed volumes (60 ml and 80 ml), the cuff would be overinflated in one-third of patients, increasing the theoretical risk of ischaemic changes to the oropharynx. Since the cuff volume is correlated with the patient's height or weight, the cuff volume should be adjusted to the patients' stature.     

Is Unilateral Implant or Autologous Breast Reconstruction Better in Obtaining Breast Symmetry?

Unilateral breast reconstruction poses a special set of challenges to the reconstructive breast surgeon compared to bilateral reconstructions. No studies to date provide an objective comparison between autologous and implant based reconstructions in matching the contralateral breast. This study compares the quantitative postoperative results between unilateral implant and autologous flap reconstructions in matching the native breast in shape, size, and projection using three‐dimensional (3D) imaging. Sixty‐four patients who underwent unilateral mastectomy with tissue expander (TE)‐implant (n = 34) or autologous microvascular free transverse rectus abdominus myocutaneous (TRAM; n = 18) or deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP; n = 12) flap (n = 30) reconstruction from 2007 to 2010 were analyzed. Key patient demographics and risk factors were collected. Using 3D scans of patients obtained during pre and postoperative visits including over 1 year follow‐ups for both groups, 3D models were constructed and analyzed for total breast volume, anterior‐posterior projection from the chest wall, and 3D comparison. No significant differences in mean age, body mass index, or total number of reconstructive surgeries were observed between the two groups (TE‐implant: 52.2 ± 10, 23.9 ± 3.7, 3 ± 0.9; autologous: 50.7 ± 9.4, 25.4 ± 3.9, 2.9 ± 1.3; p > 0.05). The total volume difference between the reconstructed and contralateral breasts in the TE‐implant group was insignificant: 27.1 ± 22.2 cc, similar to the autologous group: 29.5 ± 24.7 cc, as was the variance of breast volume from the mean. In both groups, the reconstructed breast had a larger volume. A‐P projections were similar between the contralateral and the reconstructed breasts in the TE‐implant group: 72.5 ± 3.21 mm versus 71.7 ± 3.5 mm (p > 0.05). The autologous reconstructed breast had statistically insignificant but less A‐P projection compared to the contralateral breast (81.9 ± 16.1 mm versus 61.5 ± 9.5 mm; p > 0.05). Variance of A‐P projection from the mean was additionally insignificant between the contralateral and reconstructed breasts. Both groups produced similar asymmetry scores based on global 3D comparison (TE‐implant: 2.24 ± 0.3 mm; autologous: 1.96 ± 0.2 mm; p > 0.05). Lastly, when the autologous group was further subdivided into TRAM and DIEP cohorts, no significant differences in breast volume, A‐P projection or symmetry existed. Using 3D imaging, we demonstrate that both TE‐implant and autologous reconstruction can achieve symmetrical surgical results with the same number of operations. This study demonstrates that breast symmetry, while an important consideration in the breast reconstruction algorithm, should not be the sole consideration in a patient’ decision to proceed with autologous versus TE‐implant reconstruction.     

The spring-back phenomenon: does the final position of the nipple areola complex correspond to the pre-operative markings in reduction mammoplasty?

This study investigates whether tissue recoil or patient intrinsic factors influence the final position of the nipple areola complex (NAC) after reduction mammoplasty. The age, pre-operative ptosis, BMI and weight of the tissue resected were recorded as patient intrinsic factors in 37 patients undergoing reduction mammoplasty. The “spring-back” value was defined as the distance from the sternal notch to a nipple landmark on the breast meridian with the patient sitting up, minus the same measurement repeated with the patient recumbent to eliminate the pull of gravity on the breast. Spring back was measured pre-operatively for the nipple and nipple mark then post-operative for the nipple. The difference in centimeters between the final post-operative distance from the sternal notch to the nipple and the level intended by the pre-operative nipple mark was termed the “judgment error.” The final position of the post-operative nipple and the judgment error was compared to the spring-back values and patient intrinsic factors. Pre-operative ptosis was statistically related to increasing patient BMI and mass of tissue resected per breast. Pre-operative spring-back values for the nipple increased with increasing ptosis, BMI and decreasing age. Spring-back values were greater in the lower pole of the breast than in the upper pole. The final position of the nipple was higher than the pre-operative mark in 65% of cases, lower in 8% and as marked in 27% of cases. The post-operative NAC was, on average, 0.6 cm higher than planned pre-operatively. The post-operative distance from the sternal notch to the nipple increased with increasing pre-operative ptosis, mass of breast tissue resected per breast and all three spring-back values. The difference between the level of the pre-operative mark and the final nipple position showed a weak correlation with post-operative spring-back values. The parameters of ptosis, BMI, weight of tissue resected per breast and pre-operative nipple spring back reflect body habitus and breast size. Spring-back values vary between the upper and lower pole of the breast. The final NAC position was higher than that intended at pre-operative marking in the majority of cases. The surgeon instinctively marks the nipple lower in patients with greater pre-operative ptosis and in whom a larger resection is anticipated. Judgment error did not relate to intrinsic factors nor to pre-operative spring-back values; hence, these parameters cannot be applied as predictive tools for more accurate pre-operative marking of the nipple position. This study suggests that the pre-operative nipple mark should be placed, with the patient sitting up, at least 23 cm from the sternal notch and 0.6 cm lower than the final position estimated using the inframammary crease as a landmark. An invited commentary on this paper is available at .     

Breast and chest asymmetries: classification and relative distribution of common asymmetries in patients requesting augmentation mammoplasty

Asymmetries of the breast and chest wall are common but a comprehensive classification of these asymmetries and their relative distribution is lacking in the literature. These asymmetries can be primarily due to breast size and shape or nipple areolar complex size or level discrepancy respectively. Breast asymmetries may also arise secondarily due to abnormalities of the underlying bony or soft tissues. A prospective recording of 312 augmentation mammoplasties performed by the author, from January to December 2007, were reviewed to assess breast and chest wall deformities together with an incidence and their relative distribution. From January to December 2007, 312 augmentation mammoplasties were performed. Mean age of the patients was 30.4 ± 9.1 years (range 18–58). Mean size of the implant was 325 ± 53 cm³ (range 200–620). Different size implants were used in 9% patients with a mean difference of 56.3 ± 33.7 cm³ (range 20–180). Patients were assessed for asymmetry of breast, chest, distance between jugular notch to nipple areolar complex and nipple areolar complex to inframammary crease. Breast Volume Asymmetries: Breasts were symmetrical in 53.5% (n = 167). Left breast was larger in 29.8% (n = 93) as compared to 16.7% (n = 52) on the right, and the difference was significant (P value < 0.001). Chest Wall Asymmetries: Chest wall was symmetrical in 89.7% (n = 280) and thoracic deformities or asymmetries were seen in 8.6% (n = 27). Chest wall and ribs were more prominent on the left side in 6.7% (n = 21) as compared to 1.9% (n = 6) on the right, and the difference was significant (P value < 0.003) Pectus excavatum and carinatum was seen in 0.6% (n = 2) and 1% (n = 3), respectively. Jugular Notch to Nipple Areolar Complex Distance Differences: Jugular notch to nipple areolar complex (NAC) distance was same on two sides in 67.2% with a mean distance of 19.7 cm (n = 207). In group (21.4%) with the left breast NAC lower (n = 66) the mean left NAC was 20.7 cm when compared to 19.04 cm on right. In group (11.2%) with right NAC lower than the left (n = 35), the mean NAC on the right was 21.2 cm as compared to 20.4 cm on the left. The left breast NAC (n = 66) was measured almost twice as low as the right (n = 35), and the difference between the two groups was significant (p value < 0.001). Nipple Areolar Complex to Inframammary Crease Distance Differences: Nipple to inframammary crease (IMC) distance was similar in 77.1% of patients with a mean of 6.69 cm. The group (n = 40) with higher measured distance on the left (13.1%), left mean nipple to IMC crease distance was 6.9 cm as compared to 6.17 cm on the right. The group (n = 30) with a higher measured nipple to IMC distance on the right (9.8%), the mean distance on the right was 7.12 cm as compared to 6.52 cm on the left. Though the incidence of the measured nipple to IMC distance was more common on the left (n = 40) than to the right (30), the difference between the two groups was without any statistical difference (p value = 0.2). A tuberous breast were seen in 3.9% (n = 12). Breast and chest wall asymmetries are common and majority of hyperplasias is seen on the left side. The majority of these patients may not require additional surgical manipulation or intervention however proper documentation is essential.