The Role of Self-Efficacy in the Alzheimer's Family Caregiver Stress Process: A Partial Mediator between Physical Health and Depressive Symptoms

Physical health has been commonly regarded as an outcome in caregiving research; however, it may act as a predictor of depressive symptoms of caregivers. This current study investigated the relationship between physical health and depression in family caregivers of persons with Alzheimer's disease. Also, it examined caregiving self-efficacy as a possible mediator of the relationship. One hundred thirty-four family caregivers were interviewed. The caregivers self-reported their current physical health status, depressive symptoms, and perceived self-efficacy. Using a self-efficacy measure consisting of three subscales, path analyses were conducted to specifically assess these domains of caregiving self-efficacy. The results showed that poorer perceived physical health was directly and indirectly associated with increased depressive symptoms. The indirect path was mediated by the specific domain of caregivers' self-efficacy. These findings suggest that caregiving self-efficacy may function as a mechanism through which perceived physical health influences depressive symptoms, and this mechanism can be domain-specific.     

老年心血管疾病患者合并抑郁症状的初步研究

目的研究老年心血管疾病患者合并抑郁症状的相关危险因素。方法以老年抑郁量表随机调查参加正常体检的482例老年人为研究对象,其中有老年心血管者416例,无心血管疾病者66例,分别调查其抑郁症状发生情况,并探讨抑郁症状与冠心病、心律失常和高血压的关系。结果本组老年心血管疾病患者合并抑郁症状的比例明显高于无心血管疾病者,差异有统计学意义(P=0.01,OR=7.619,95%CI 1.826-31.785)。随着年龄的增长,老年心血管疾病患者合并抑郁症状的比例逐渐增高(P0.01)。老年心血管疾病合并抑郁症状患者在冠心病与非冠心病亚组间差异有显著性(P0.01),对是否合并心律失常、高血压和高血脂的危险因素进行比较,两组之间无统计学差异。结论老年心血管疾病患者合并抑郁症状比例显著高于同龄无心血管疾病对照人群,并随年龄增长逐渐增加。     

Depressive symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: natural course and temporal relation to function and cognitive status

OBJECTIVES: To examine the natural course of depressive symptoms in patients with probable Alzheimer's disease (AD), specifically, the temporal relationship between depressive symptoms, function, and cognitive status. DESIGN: Multicenter cohort study with follow-up of up to 14 years. SETTING: Patients from the two Multicenter Study of Predictors of Disease Course in Alzheimer's Disease (Predictors Study) cohorts were recruited at five sites in the United States and Europe. PARTICIPANTS: Patients diagnosed with probable AD (n=536) enrolled in a longitudinal study (Predictors Study). MEASUREMENTS: Depressive symptoms were evaluated at 6-month intervals using the Columbia Scale for Psychopathology in Alzheimer's Disease. The Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) and Blessed Dementia Rating Scale (BDRS) were used to assess cognitive status and functional activity, respectively. RESULTS: The prevalence of depressive symptoms was stable over the first 3 years of follow-up, at approximately 40%. There was a significant drop to 28% and 24% in the fourth and fifth years of follow-up, respectively. Time-dependent Cox analysis revealed that functional activity (BDRS) but not cognitive status (3MS) was a significant predictor of the first episode of depressive symptoms during follow-up. Generalized estimating equation analyses showed that AD duration and functional activity but not cognitive status were significantly related to depressive symptoms over the entire follow-up period. CONCLUSION: Depressive symptoms are common in AD, but their prevalence decreases over time. Examination of the temporal relationship between depressive symptoms and risk factors suggests that decline in function but not in cognition precedes the first episode of depressive symptoms in patients with probable AD.     

Risk factors and characteristics of the recurrence of behavioral and psychological symptoms of Alzheimer's disease

BackgroundThere is limited data on the risk factors and characteristics of the recurrence of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD).MethodsOne hundred and two AD patients complaining of BPSD were followed-up for 12 months after being well controlled. Potential risk factors for the recurrence of BPSD were evaluated. The severity of BPSD was measured using the Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI). NPI syndromes were categorized into affective impairments, psychotic symptoms, and lack of control disorders. Characteristics of the recurrent BPSD were compared with those of the former onset.ResultsForty-five of the patients presented recurrent BPSD within 12 months. Risk factors of recurrence included change of environment (RR = 5.42, p < 0.001), failure to maintain antipsychotic medication (RR = 3.13, p < 0.001), and high NPI score (RR = 1.06, p = 0.023) at the former onset. Both the number of symptoms and the affective subscores were correlated (r = 0.93, p = 0.011; r = 0.79, p = 0.016, respectively) and showed no significant difference between the two adjacent onsets of BPSD. The NPI total score (18.29 ± 2.06 vs. 20.80 ± 3.78, p = 0.031) and the psychotic subscore (6.49 ± 1.80 vs. 7.73 ± 1.92, p = 0.033) were significantly lower in the recurrent onset than those in the former and the two values showed no significant correlation between the two onsets. Subscores of lack of control of the two onsets were neither correlated nor different statistically from each other.ConclusionChange of environment, failure to maintain antipsychotic medication, and high NPI score at the former onset are risk factors for the recurrence of BPSD. Profiles of two onsets in the same patient are not always the same. The severity of BPSD and its psychotic symptoms show a tendency to ameliorate with the progression of AD. Affective impairments appear to be consistent. Lack of control disorders may be variable.     

Donepezil treatment in Alzheimer's disease patients with and without cerebrovascular lesions: A preliminary report

Aim: Donepezil has not been evaluated in Korean patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) for up to 1 year. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the differential efficacy of donepezil in Korean AD patients with and without concomitant cerebrovascular lesions (CVL). Methods: This study was a 48‐week open‐label trial of donepezil in patients with probable AD of mild to moderate severity. CVL were evaluated through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings within 3 months. Efficacy analyses were performed for cognitive, behavioral and functional outcome measures. Results: Concomitant CVL were documented in 35 (30.7%) of the patients on MRI. Seventy‐nine (69.3%) of the patients were considered not to have concomitant CVL. The mean Mini‐Mental State Examination scores of both patients with and without CVL showed improvement at each evaluation. However, there was no statistical difference in improvement between the groups. Conclusion: The presence of CVL should not deter clinicians from treating AD with donepezil. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2011; 11: 90–97.     

Effects of cognitive function and depressive mood on the quality of life in Chinese Alzheimer's disease patients in Hong Kong

Aim: In view of the paucity of data on the quality of life (QOL) in Chinese Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, we investigated the effects of cognitive function and depressive mood on QOL among our Chinese AD patients in Hong Kong, using the Cantonese Chinese version of Quality of Life in Alzheimer's disease (QOL‐AD). Methods: This was a cross‐sectional study. The Cantonese Chinese version of QOL‐AD was adapted from the Mandarin Chinese and English versions of QOL‐AD, and was administered to 111 AD patients and their caregivers. Results: The Cantonese Chinese version of QOL‐AD showed good internal consistency, test–retest and inter‐rater reliability. The patients' and caregivers' reports of QOL‐AD were moderately correlated (r = 0.516, P < 0.001). Both QOL‐AD scores from patient and caregiver reports varied significantly in relation to the severity of cognitive impairment, being lowest in the subgroup with Mini‐Mental State Examination scores of 10 or less. The mean QOL‐AD scores from both patient and caregiver reports were also significantly lower in the depressed (Geriatric Depression Scale [GDS] scores ≥15) than non‐depressed groups (GDS scores ≤15) (QOL‐AD patient report 23.8 and 34.2, respectively, P < 0.001, Student's t‐test; QOL‐AD caregiver report 28.9 and 31.0, respectively, P < 0.05, Student's t‐test). General linear model analyses showed that only the MMSE and GDS scores were independent significant factors associated with the patient but not the caregiver reports of the QOL‐AD. Conclusion: Among Chinese AD patients in Hong Kong, depressive mood and low MMSE score adversely affect the QOL‐AD from the patient but not the caregiver perspectives. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2011; 11: 69–76.     

Effect of Walking Distance on 8‐Year Incident Depressive Symptoms in Elderly Men with and without Chronic Disease: The Honolulu‐Asia Aging Study

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of walking on incident depressive symptoms in elderly Japanese‐American men with and without chronic disease. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: The Honolulu‐Asia Aging Study. PARTICIPANTS: Japanese‐American men aged 71 to 93 at baseline. MEASUREMENTS: Physical activity was assessed according to self‐reported distance walked per day. Depressive symptoms were measured using an 11‐question version of the Centers for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES‐D 11) at the fourth examination (n=3,196) and at the seventh examination 8 years later (1999/00, n=1,417). Presence of incident depressive symptoms was defined as a CES‐D 11 score of 9 or greater or taking antidepressants at Examination 7. Subjects with prevalent depressive symptoms at baseline were excluded. RESULTS: Age‐adjusted 8‐year incident depressive symptoms were 13.6%, 7.6%, and 8.5% for low (<0.25 miles/day), intermediate (0.25–1.5 miles/day), and high (>1.5 miles/day) walking groups at baseline (P=0.008). Multiple logistic regression analyses, adjusted for age, education, marital status, cardiovascular risk factors, prevalent diseases, and functional impairment, showed that those in the intermediate and highest walking groups had significantly lower odds of developing 8‐year incident depressive symptoms (odds ratio (OR)=0.52, 95% confidence interval (CI)=0.32–0.83, P=.006 and OR=0.61, 95% CI= 0.39–0.97, P=.04, respectively). Analysis found that this association was significant only in participants without chronic diseases (coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular accident, cancer, Parkinson's disease, dementia, or cognitive impairment) at baseline. CONCLUSION: Daily physical activity (≥0.25 mile/day) is significantly associated with lower risk of 8‐year incident depressive symptoms in elderly Japanese‐American men without chronic disease at baseline.     

Measuring Physical Activity in Older Adults With and Without Early Stage Alzheimer's Disease

We compared subjective reports of physical activity with objective measures of physical fitness including cardiorespiratory capacity, body composition, and physical performance in 146 older adults with and without early stage Alzheimer's disease (ESAD). Respondents reported primarily unstructured and low-intensity activities, including walking and housework. Individuals with ESAD participated in fewer and lower intensity physical activities than those without ESAD. In those without ESAD, housework was related to lower body mass index, leisure walking was related to faster speed on a timed walking test, and participation in sports was related to higher peak oxygen intake. In individuals with ESAD, reported physical activities did not predict any of the physical fitness, body composition, or physical performance measures. We conclude that measures of physical activity require expansion of unstructured and low-intensity activities to improve sensitivity in sedentary populations, especially in older adults with ESAD.