lncRNA NEAT1促进脓毒症诱导肝细胞损伤和炎症反应的机制研究

目的 基于lncRNA NEAT1调控的miR-129-5p/TLR4信号轴探讨脓毒症诱导的肝细胞损伤和炎症反应机制。方法 收集15例脓毒症患者外周血（脓毒症组）和15例健康者外周血（健康组）用于检测基因表达。体外实验使用小鼠正常肝细胞株NCTC1469,并用脂多糖（LPS）建立体外脓毒症模型（LPS组）,将LPS刺激下转染mimic NC、mimic、siNC或siNEAT1质粒载体的细胞分别命名为LPS+mimic NC组、LPS+mimic组、LPS+siNC组或LPS+siNEAT1组,将LPS、siNEAT1、TLR4重组蛋白或LPS、mimic、TLR4重组蛋白联合处理的细胞命名为LPS+siNEAT1+TLR4组或LPS+mimic+TLR4组,而对照组不作处理。分别用qPCR和ELISA检测TNF-α、IL-6、IL-1β的mRNA和蛋白表达水平。TUNEL实验检测细胞的凋亡率。双荧光素酶报告基因分析法检测lncRNA NEAT1/miR-129-5p和miR-129-5p/TLR4的结合。Western blot检测细胞中TLR4的表达。结果 在体内实验中,与健康组比...     

异丙酚通过miR-218抑制人食管鳞癌细胞系KYSE150的侵袭和迁移

目的探讨异丙酚对人食管鳞癌细胞系KYSE150侵袭和迁移的影响及其机制。方法以0、2.5、5和10μg/L异丙酚处理KYSE150细胞,24 h后分别采用Transwell小室法和划痕实验检测细胞的侵袭和迁移能力;RT-qPCR检测细胞中miR-218的表达;Western blot检测HMGB1蛋白的表达;生物信息学软件预测和双荧光素酶报告基因实验检测miR-218和HMGB1的靶向关系,观察miR-218对HMGB1蛋白的调控作用。采用脂质体法转染miR-218抑制剂或pcDNA3.1-HMGB1-GFP过表达载体质粒后,观察miR-218和HMGB1蛋白的表达以及下调miR-218或上调HMGB1表达对10μg/L异丙酚处理的KYSE150细胞侵袭和迁移的影响。结果异丙酚呈浓度依赖性地抑制KYSE150细胞侵袭、迁移和细胞中HMGB1蛋白的表达,并促进miR-218的表达(P<0.05)。双荧光素酶报告基因实验证实HMGB1是miR-218的靶基因,miR-218可负向调控HMGB1蛋白的表达(P<0.05)。下调miR-218表达可逆转异丙酚对KYSE150细胞侵袭和迁移的抑制作用(P<0.05);同时上调HMGB1表达可逆转异丙酚对KYSE150细胞侵袭和迁移的抑制作用(P<0.05)。结论异丙酚抑制食管鳞癌KYSE150细胞侵袭和迁移,其作用机制可能与miR-218靶向调控HMGB1有关。     

lncRNA PCGEM1通过靶向miR-155-5p抑制LPS诱导的气管平滑肌细胞增殖及炎症反应北大核心CSCD

目的研究lncRNA PCGEM1/miR-155-5p轴对LPS诱导的气管平滑肌细胞增殖和凋亡及炎症反应的影响。方法采用100μg/ml LPS刺激支气管平滑肌细胞BSMC 12 h以诱导细胞损伤。实时荧光定量PCR(RT-qPCR)检测细胞lncRNA PCGEM1和miR-155-5p表达水平;细胞计数试剂盒(CCK-8)法检测细胞增殖;流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡;蛋白质印迹(Western blot)法检测细胞CyclinD1、Cleaved-caspase-3蛋白表达;双荧光素酶报告实验检测lncRNA PCGEM1和miR-155-5p靶向关系。结果与NC组比较,LPS组细胞lncRNA PCGEM1表达水平显著降低,miR-155-5p表达水平显著升高(P<0.05)。与pcDNA+LPS组比较,pcDNA-lncRNA PCGEM1+LPS组lncRNA PCGEM1表达水平显著升高,吸光度值、CyclinD1蛋白表达显著降低,细胞凋亡率、Cleaved-caspase-3蛋白表达显著升高,TNF-α、IL-6、IL-33水平显著降低(P<0.05)。与anti-miR-NC+LPS组比较,antimiR-155-5p+LPS组miR-155-5p表达水平显著降低,吸光度值、CyclinD1蛋白表达显著降低,细胞凋亡率、Cleaved-caspase-3蛋白表达显著升高,TNF-α、IL-6、IL-33水平显著降低(P<0.05)。与miR-NC+pcDNA-lncRNA PCGEM1+LPS组比较,miR-155-5p+pcDNA-lncRNA PCGEM1+LPS组细胞miR-155-5p表达水平显著升高,吸光度值、CyclinD1蛋白表达显著升高,细胞凋亡率、Cleaved-caspase-3蛋白表达显著降低,TNF-α、IL-6、IL-33水平显著升高(P<0.05)。结论lncRNA PCGEM1下调miR-155-5p降低LPS诱导的气管平滑肌细胞凋亡及炎症反应,抑制增殖。     

miR-221靶向AdipoR1基因对LPS诱导的肺泡上皮细胞A549炎症分泌及凋亡影响

目的:探讨miR-221是否靶向脂联素受体1 AdipoR1基因影响脂多糖(LPS)诱导的肺泡上皮细胞A549炎症分泌和凋亡。方法:随机将人肺泡上皮细胞A549分为对照组、LPS组和LPS+转染组,RT-qPCR法检测miR-221和AdipoR1 mRNA表达,Western blot法检测AdipoR1蛋白及凋亡相关因子Bax、Bcl-2蛋白表达,流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率,ELISA法检测细胞培养上清液中炎性因子IL-1β、IL-6和肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)浓度,双荧光素酶报告基因检测miR-221是否靶向AdipoR1。结果:与对照组比较,LPS组细胞中miR-221及Bax蛋白表达升高(P<0.05),AdipoR1 miRNA和蛋白及Bcl-2蛋白表达降低(P<0.05),细胞培养上清液中IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α浓度升高(P<0.05),细胞凋亡率升高(P<0.05);双荧光素酶报告基因实验证实miR-221靶向负调控AdipoR1的表达;抑制miR-221和过表达AdipoR1均能抑制LPS诱导肺泡上皮细胞分泌炎症因子,抑制细胞凋亡;抑...     

miR-140-5p靶向HMGB1/IκB-α轴对糖尿病大鼠视网膜病变的影响

目的 探讨微小RNA(miRNA)miR-140-5p通过靶向调节高迁移率族蛋白1(HMGB1)/核因子κB抑制蛋白α(IκB-α)轴对糖尿病大鼠视网膜病变的影响。方法 将糖尿病大鼠随机分为模型组、miR-140-5p激动剂(miR-140-5p agomir)组、激动剂阴性对照(agomir-NC)组，10只/组，另取10只正常大鼠作为对照组。分离血清及视网膜组织，RT-qPCR检测血清和视网膜组织miR-140-5p、HMGB1 mRNA表达水平；HE染色检测病理学变化；ELISA检测血清单核细胞趋化因子-1(MCP-1)、肿瘤坏死因子-ɑ(TNF-ɑ)、细胞间黏附分子-1(ICAM-1)含量；TUNEL染色检测视网膜细胞凋亡；双荧光素酶报告基因实验检测miR-140-5p、HMGB1的靶向关系；Western blot检测视网膜组织HMGB1、IκB-α、NF-κB p65蛋白表达。结果 HMGB1为miR-140-5p的靶基因。模型组、agomir-NC组MCP-1、TNF-ɑ、ICAM-1含量、HMGB1、NF-κB p65表达、凋亡细胞及组织损伤较对照组增加，miR-140...     

青蒿素减轻LPS诱导的肠上皮细胞屏障功能损伤的实验研究

目的:探究青蒿素对脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)诱导的大鼠肠上皮IEC-6细胞屏障功能损伤的影响。方法:体外培养IEC-6细胞,随机分为5组:对照组、LPS(100 mg/L)组和LPS+青蒿素(30、50和100μmol/L)组,MTT法检测各组细胞毒性变化,ELISA检测各组细胞分泌炎性因子TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6水平的变化,电阻仪检测肠上皮细胞跨上皮电阻(TER),酶标仪检测单层细胞对辣根过氧化物酶(HRP)的通透性,RT-qPCR和Western blot检测各组细胞紧密连接蛋白(ZO-1、claudin-1和occludin)以及TLR4/My D88/NF-κB mRNA和蛋白表达的变化。结果:LPS与青蒿素在本实验浓度范围对IEC-6细胞均无毒性。与对照组相比,LPS处理下,细胞分泌TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6水平以及TLR4/My D88/NF-κB的mRNA和蛋白表达明显增加,ZO-1、claudin-1和occludin的mRNA和蛋白表达降低。而青蒿素干预下,细胞分泌TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6水平以及TLR4/My D88/NF-κB mRNA和蛋白表达明显降低,ZO-1、claudin-1和occludin的mRNA和蛋白表达升高(P0.05),均呈现浓度依赖性。结论:青蒿素可能通过抑制TLR4/My D88/NF-κB通路减轻LPS诱导的肠上皮细胞屏障功能损伤。     

miRNA-218-5p通过HMGB1信号通路抑制RAW264.7细胞源性泡沫细胞炎症反应

目的：探讨微小RNA-218-5p(miRNA-218-5p)通过调节高迁移率族盒蛋白1(HMGB1)信号通路对RAW264.7细胞源性泡沫细胞炎症反应的影响。方法：将RAW264.7细胞分为对照组、模型组、miRNA mimics组及miRNA NC组。对照组细胞正常培养;模型组细胞采用80 mg/L氧化低密度脂蛋白（ox-LDL）诱导24 h建立泡沫细胞模型;miRNA mimics组及miRNA NC组分别转染miRNA-218-5p mimics及miRNA mimics control 24 h后再用80mg/L ox-LDL诱导24 h建立泡沫细胞模型。应用油红O染色检测各组细胞内脂质变化;试剂盒检测各组细胞中白细胞介素1β(IL-1β)、IL-6和肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)表达量;qPCR检测各组细胞中miRNA-218-5p表达量;Western Blot检测各组细胞中HMGB1、Toll样受体4(TLR4)、核因子κB(NF-κB)p65及p-NF-κB p65蛋白水平;通过双萤光素酶报告基因实验检测miRNA-218-5p对HMGB1的靶向作用。结果：与对照组比较...     

下调miR-217抑制类风湿性关节炎患者外周血单个核细胞炎症反应的实验研究

目的:探讨下调miR-217表达对类风湿性关节炎(RA)患者外周血单个核细胞(PBMC)炎症反应的影响及作用机制。方法:分离培养RA患者PBMC细胞,脂多糖(LPS)诱导PBMC细胞24 h,ELISA法检测炎症因子TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6和IL-10的表达,qRT-PCR检测miR-217和Sirt1 mRNA表达,Western blot检测Sirt1蛋白表达。分别转染anti-miR-217和pcDNA3.1-Sirt1至PBMC细胞,构建miR-217低表达、Sirt1过表达的PBMC细胞,ELISA法检测PBMC细胞分泌TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6和IL-10的变化。双荧光素酶报告基因验证miR-217与Sirt1的关系。结果:LPS诱导PBMC细胞24 h后,TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6水平升高,IL-10水平降低。miR-217在LPS诱导的PBMC细胞中表达上调,Sirt1 mRNA和蛋白表达下调。下调miR-217表达或上调Sirt1表达均可抑制PBMC细胞TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6表达,促进IL-10表达。miR-217在PBMC细胞中负向调控...     

依托咪酯通过miR-146a 调节TLR4 通路对内毒素急性肺损伤小鼠炎症 反应的保护作用研究

目的:观察依托咪酯对内毒素急性肺损伤小鼠炎症反应的影响,并探讨其作用机制。方法:雄性成年BLAB/c小鼠60只,随机分为空白对照组、模型组、依托咪酯组,每组20只。模型组及药物干预组应用腹腔注射脂多糖(LPS,20 mg/kg)制作急性肺损伤小鼠模型,空白对照组给予等体积生理盐水腹腔注射。药物干预组于造模后0.5 h给予依托咪酯2.5 mg/kg。空白对照组及模型组给予等体积生理200μl/只。于给药后6 h检测小鼠血清中的内毒素水平,BALF中TNF-α、IL-6和IL-1β的含量;RT-PCR检测miR-146a、MyD88、IRAK1、IRF5、TRAF6 mRNA在肺组织中的表达;Western blot检测TLR4、MyD88、TRAF6、IRAK1、IRF5蛋白在肺组织中的表达。结果:模型组、依托咪酯组与空白对照组相比,血清内毒素含量、TNF-α、IL-6和IL-1β含量、miR-146a表达水平、TLR4、MyD88、IRAK1、IRF5、TRAF6 mRNA表达水平及TLR4、MyD88、IRAK1、IRF5、TRAF6蛋白表达均明显升高,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05);依托咪酯组与模型组比较,小鼠血清内毒素含量、TNF-α、IL-6和IL-1β含量、TLR4、MyD88、IRAK1、IRF5、TRAF6 mRNA表达水平及TLR4、MyD88、IRAK1、IRF5、TRAF6蛋白表达水平均明显下降,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:依托咪酯能够通过增加miR-146a的含量调节TLR4通路对内毒素急性肺损伤小鼠炎症反应的保护作用。     

微小RNA-423-5p靶向乙醛脱氢酶2减轻脂多糖诱导的人脐静脉血管内皮细胞损伤

目的 探讨微小RNA-423-5p(miR-423-5p)对脂多糖（LPS）诱导血管内皮细胞损伤的保护及作用机制。方法 用1 mg/L LPS诱导人脐静脉血管内皮细胞（HUVECs）24 h,Real-time PCR和Western blotting检测细胞中miR-423-5p和乙醛脱氢酶2（ALDH2）的表达。通过转染anti-miR-423-5p和pcDNA-ALDH2下调miR-423-5p和上调ALDH2表达,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率,Western blotting检测凋亡相关蛋白Bcl-2和Bax的表达,并用ELISA试剂盒检测LPS诱导后细胞上清液中白细胞介素6（IL-6）和肿瘤坏死因子α（TNF-α）的含量;双荧光素酶报告系统验证miR-423-5p与ALDH2的调控关系。结果 与对照相比,LPS可诱导HUVECs凋亡和损伤,使HUVECs中miR-423-5p、Bax表达量及IL-6和TNF-α分泌量均显著升高（P<0.05）,ALDH2的mRNA和蛋白表达量及Bcl-2量显著降低（P<0.05）;下调mi-423-5p表达和过表达ALDH2均可减轻LPS诱导的HUVECs损伤并抑制细胞凋亡;miR-423-5p靶向负调控ALDH2的表达;抑制ALDH2表达逆转了下调miR-423-5p表达对LPS诱导的HUVECs损伤的作用。结论 下调miR-423-5p表达可靶向ALDH2减轻LPS对HUVECs的损伤并抑制细胞凋亡。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.