CCl4诱导的急性肝损伤小鼠肝组织HSP27表达的变化

目的 研究热休克蛋白(HSP)27在CCl4诱导的急性肝损伤小鼠肝组织中的动态变化.方法 将100只健康雄性小鼠随机分为模型组90只和对照组10只.应用CCl4腹腔注射诱导小鼠急性肝损伤,在3h、6h、12h、24h、30h、36h、42h、48h和54h及正常对照小鼠分别眼球取血或取肝脏制备10％肝匀浆,采用Western blotting法检测肝组织HSP27表达的变化.结果 小鼠注射CCl4后,血清AST和ALT活性逐渐升高,24h达到高峰,54h逐渐恢复到正常水平;肝组织HSP27在注射CCl4后3h表达量略有增高,在24h表达量达到高峰,此后逐渐恢复到正常水平.结论 在CCl4诱导的急性肝损伤小鼠肝组织HSP27表达出现显著变化,可能在肝损伤的修复和再生过程中起到重要的作用.     

双环醇联合二甲双胍治疗脂肪肝40例疗效观察

目的观察双环醇治疗脂肪肝的疗效。方法将80例脂肪肝患者,随机分为治疗组（n=40）及对照组（n=40）。治疗组在综合治疗基础上给予双环醇联合二甲双胍治疗;对照组综合治疗基础上,给予应用二甲双胍。全部病例均连续治疗4周。结果治疗组患者症状或体征消失率、肝功及血脂复常率,肝脏彩超影像学改变与对照组比较（P〈0.05）,差异有具有统计学意义。结论应用双环醇联合二甲双胍治疗脂肪肝患者疗效好,且安全无副作用,值得推广应用。     

双环醇与多烯磷脂酰胆碱治疗酒精性脂肪肝的临床病理比较

观察双环醇与多烯磷脂酰胆碱治疗酒精性脂肪肝的临床病理差异。55例患者随机分为两组,治疗组29例给予双环醇,对照组26例给多烯磷脂酰胆碱,疗程36周。两组各20例治疗前后肝组织学比较。治疗36周,双环醇组完全应答率50％,部分应答率30％,多烯磷脂酰胆碱组分别为45％和15％,双环醇组在改善ALT、ALP、GGT和肝纤维化积分优于多烯磷脂酰胆碱,双环醇组血清GST—Px治疗后升高,两组治疗后MDA均下降。     

Protection by bicyclol derivatives against acetaminophen‐induced acute liver failure in mice and its active mechanism

Background/Aims: To find a novel drug against acute liver failure, a methionine derivative of bicyclol (WLP‐S‐10) was studied in acetaminophen‐injected mice. Methods: At first, 10 derivatives of bicyclol were tested in male KunMing strain mice injected with CCl₄, acetaminophen or d ‐galactosamine plus lipopolysaccharide (LPS), serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and mortality rate were determined. Among the 10 derivatives, a methionine derivative of bicyclol (WLP‐S‐10) was shown to be the most effective. A single dose of WLP‐S‐10 200 mg/kg was intraperitoneally injected 1 h before administration of a lethal dose of acetaminophen; the mortality rate, liver lesions, serum ALT, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and liver glutathione (GSH) were determined. Mitochondrial GSH and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels, cytochrome C and apoptosis‐inducing factor (AIF) leakage, mitochondrial swelling and membrane potential were determined. Results: As a result, WLP‐S‐10 200 mg/kg significantly reduced liver injury induced by CCl₄ and decreased the mortality rate of mice because of acute liver failure caused by lethal dosage of acetaminophen or d ‐galactosamine plus LPS. WLP‐S‐10 200 mg/kg markedly reduced liver necrosis, serum ALT and AST elevation and GSH depletion after injection of acetaminophen. WLP‐S‐10 inhibited mitochondrial swelling, breakdown of membrane potential and depletion of mitochondrial ATP, and also reduced release of cytochrome C and AIF from mitochondria induced by acetaminophen. Conclusions: The results indicate that WLP‐S‐10 is a novel potential compound against acetaminophen‐induced acute liver failure in mice, and its active mechanism is mainly related to protection against necrosis and apoptosis of hepatocytes through inhibition of mitochondrial energy (ATP) depletion and AIF and cytochrome C release.     

原儿茶酸对刀豆蛋白A所致的免疫性肝损伤小鼠肝组织MDA、NO、SOD和GSH-PX表达的影响

目的 研究原儿茶酸对豆蛋白A(ConA)所致的免疫性肝损伤小鼠肝组织丙二醛(MDA)、一氧化氮(NO)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-PX)水平的影响.方法 随机将60只小鼠分为对照组、模型组、小、中、大剂量(2.5 mg.kg-1.d-1、5 mg.kg-1.d-1、10 mg.kg-1.d-...     

The protective effect of pyrroloquinoline quinone and its derivatives against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury of rats

Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) and its derivative, oxazo pyrroloquinoline (OPQ-G), protected rats from experimental liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) in vivo. This effect was observed after an intraperitoneal injection of 5 mg/kg PQQ or OPQ-G, which was given twice, 10 min and 1 h before CCl₄ administration. Pyrroloquinoline quinone protected primary cultured rat hepatocytes from CCl₄ toxicity in vitro. This protection was most effective at a concentration of 3 μmol/L PQQ. Pyrroloquinoline quinone derivatives (oxazo pyrroloquinoline, methyl-thioethyl oxazo pyrroloquinoline and PQQ-allylester) also protected the hepatocytes from CCl₄ toxicity. Pyrroloquinoline quinone and its derivatives inhibited the lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence from isolated hepatocytes initiated by CCl₄. These results suggest that eliminating free radicals is one of the protective mechanisms of PQQ and its derivatives against CCl₄-induced liver injury.     

参附注射液抗肝脏缺血再灌注损伤作用的研究

目的研究参附注射液在抗大鼠肝脏缺血再灌注损伤（hepatic ischemia reperfusion injury,HIRI）中的保护作用。方法将30只大鼠随机分为实验组和对照组,建立常温下部分肝脏缺血再灌注动物模型。动态观察血清天冬氨酸转氨酶（AST）、丙二醛（MDA）、超氧化物岐化酶（SOD）、肿瘤坏死因子（TNF-α）和内皮素-1（ET-1）的水平。术后取肝组织作光镜和电镜观察。结果实验组血清AST、MDA、TNF-α、ET水平均显著低于对照组水平（P〈0.05）,SOD水平高于对照组（P〈0.05）。与对照组比较,实验组大鼠肝细胞和肝窦内皮细胞变性和坏死程度较轻。结论参附注射液具有抗肝脏缺血再灌注损伤的保护作用,主要通过抑制氧自由基产生。     

Hepatoprotective effect of a curcumin/absinthium compound in experimental severe liver injury

OBJECTIVE: A preliminary in vitro study with hepatocyte culture showed that concentrations as low as 10 µg/mL of PN‐M001 are able to significantly mitigate CCl4 hepatocyte damage (P < 0.05) comparable to 100 µg/mL silymarin, and 100 µg/mL proved to be more protective than either silymarin 100 µg/mL or glycyrrhizin 10 µg/mL (P < 0.05). METHODS: Wistar rats were allocated into three groups: (A) 0.1 mL/100 g body weight (BW) mixture of CCl₄ in olive oil (1 : 1 v/v) subcutaneous injection twice daily for 4 weeks; (B) as A, plus oral administration of 50 mg/kg of K‐17.22 dissolved in 5% glucose; (C) as B but with PN‐M001 given 1 week after the first injection of CCl₄. Rats were killed at the end of the study and blood and liver samples were obtained. RESULTS: When compared with a control, group A showed a significant decrease of glutathione (GSH;>45%, P < 0.001) and oxidized GSH (GSSG; P < 0.01) liver content, a lower liver wet weight (P < 0.01) together with an increase of both transaminases (>15‐fold, P < 0.001) whereas groups B and C both showed only a mild increase in transaminases (<4‐fold, P < 0.05). Group A showed a significant decrease of Y‐protein fraction and of GST activity, as tested by both substrates (P < 0.01 vs control). However, both these parameters were reverted to normal by PN‐M001 (P < 0.05 vs A). CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary data suggest that PN‐M001 exerts a highly protective and prolonged effect (either preventive or therapeutic) on GSH depletion in CCl₄‐induced liver injury, which suggests its potential use in the clinical setting.     

Protective effects of HGF-MSP chimer (metron factor-1) on liver ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat model

OBJECTIVE: It has been reported that metron factor-1 (MF-1), an engineered chimerical factor containing selected functional domains of hepatocyte growth factor and macrophage-stimulating protein (HGF–MSP), could prevent apoptosis and have an anti-inflammatory effect. In this study, we investigate the protective effect of MF-1 on liver ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. METHODS: Overall 30 Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups: the I/R model group (n = 12), the MF-1 treatment group (n = 12), and the sham-operated group (n = 6). Liver I/R injury was induced by clamping the blood supply to the left and median lobes of liver by an atraumatic clamp for 90 min, then removing the clamp and allowing reperfusion. Blood samples were obtained on days 1, 2, 3 and 7 to assess liver biochemistry and the histology of liver tissue. Levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), nitric oxide (NO), endothelial nitric oxide synthase and inducible nitric oxide synthase were measured. In addition, the anti-oxidative effect of MF-1 on hepatocytes was assessed in vitro. RESULTS: MF-1 treatment improved the rat survival rate significantly (P < 0.05). Liver biochemistry and histological changes were significantly ameliorated. MDA increased and SOD and NO decreased in the liver tissue. In vitro, MF-1 protected the human hepatic cell line HL-7702 from damage of oxidative stress. CONCLUSION: MF-1 could protect the liver from I/R injury, which might involve the reduction of oxygen free radicals and the increase of NO synthesis in an injured liver.     

Antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective effect of 10 medicinal herbs on CCl_4-induced liver injury in mice

BACKGROUND Many natural products confer health benefits against diverse diseases through their antioxidant activities. Carbon tetrachloride(CCl_4) is often used in animal experiments to study the effects of substances on liver injury and the related mechanisms of action, among which oxidative stress is a major pathogenic factor.AIM To compare antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities of ten herbs and identify and quantify phytochemicals for the one with strongest hepatoprotection.METHODS The antioxidant activity of ten medicinal herbs was determined by both ferricreducing antioxidant power and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assays. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined by Folin–Ciocalteu method and aluminum chloride colorimetry, respectively. Their effects on CCl_4-induced oxidative liver injury were evaluated and compared in a mouse model by administrating each water extract(0.15 g/mL, 10 mL/kg) once per day for seven consecutive days and a dose of CCl_4 solution in olive oil(8%, v/v, 10 mL/kg). The herb with the strongest hepatoprotective performance was analyzed for the detailed bioactive components by using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization source-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry.RESULTS The results revealed that all tested herbs attenuated CCl_4-induced oxidative liver injury; each resulted in significant decreases in levels of serum alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and triacylglycerols.In addition, most herbs restored hepatic superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, glutathione levels, and reduced malondialdehyde levels. Sanguisorba officinalis(S. officinalis) L., Coptis chinensis Franch., and Pueraria lobata(Willd.) Ohwi root were the three most effective herbs, and S. officinalis L. exhibited the strongest hepatoprotective effect. Nine active components were identified in S. officinalis L. Gallic acid and(+)-catechin were quantified(7.86 ± 0.45 mg/g and 8.19 ± 0.57 mg/g dried weight, respectively). Furthermore, the tested herbs displayed a range of in vitro antioxidant activities proportional to their phenolic content; the strongest activities were also found for S. officinalis L.CONCLUSION This study is of value to assist the selection of more effective natural products for direct consumption and the development of nutraceuticals or therapeutics to manage oxidative stress-related diseases.     

Protective effect of fufanghuangqiduogan against acute liver injury in mice

AIM: To study the effects and possible mechanisms of fufanghuangqiduogan (FFHQ) in mice with acute liver injury (ALI). METHODS: ALI was successfully induced by injecting carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) intra peritoneally and by tail vein injection of Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice, respectively. Each of the two model groups was divided into normal group, model group, FFHQ (60, 120 and 240 mg/kg) treatment groups, and bifendate treatment group. At the end of the experiment, levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), content of malondialdehyde (MDA), activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px) in liver homogenate were measured by biochemical methods. The activities of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 (IL-1) were determined by radio-immunoassay. Hepatic tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and examined under a light microscope. RESULTS: In the two models of ALI, FFHQ (60, 120, 240 mg/kg) was found to significantly decrease the serum transaminase (ALT, AST) activities. Meanwhile, FFHQ decreased MDA contents and upregulated the lower SOD and GSH-px levels in liver homogenate. Furthermore, in immunologic liver injury model, FFHQ decreased levels of TNF-α and IL-1 in serum. Histologic examination showed that FFHQ could attenuate the area and extent of necrosis, reduce the immigration of inflammatory cells. CONCLUSION: FFHQ had protective effect on liver injury induced by either CCl4 or BCG+LPS in mice, and its mechanisms were related to free radical scavenging, increasing SOD and GSH-px activities and inhibiting the production of proinflammatory mediators.     

Effect of celecoxib on experimental liver fibrosis in rat.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an inducible enzyme that catalyzes prostaglandin synthesis, has been implicated in a number of hepatic stellate cell (HSC) functions. In the current study, we assessed the in vivo effect of celecoxib, a COX-2-selective inhibitor, in experimental liver fibrosis in rats. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats received experimental treatments for 5 weeks. Serum alanine transminase at the time of sacrifice was measured. Quantitative assessment of liver fibrosis was performed by computerized morphometry. Expression of COX-2, alpha smooth muscle actin and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Real-time quantitative PCR was used to determine the expression of genes associated with fibrogenesis and extracellular matrix degradation. RESULTS: Liver fibrosis was significantly worse in rats that received both carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and celecoxib, compared with rats that received CCl4 and gavage of water (P = 0.037). There was also more HSC activation, and upregulation of collagen alpha1(I), heat-shock protein 47, alphaB crystallin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9 and tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP)-2. The expression of TIMP-1 and CTGF was not significantly different between the two groups. The pro-fibrogenic effect of celecoxib in toxin-induced liver fibrosis in rats was further confirmed in thioacetamide model of liver injury. CONCLUSIONS: Celecoxib potentiates experimental liver fibrosis; further studies are warranted to investigate the potential pro-fibrogenic effect of celecoxib in other animal models of liver fibrosis and in patients with chronic hepatitis.     

依达拉奉对大鼠心肌再灌注损伤的保护作用及机制

目的探讨自由基清除剂依达拉奉对大鼠心肌再灌注损伤的保护作用及机制。方法将造模成功的24只Wistar大鼠随机分为对照组、缺血再灌注组(再灌注组)、保护组,每组8只。实验结束后检测各组大鼠血清肌酸激酶同工酶(CK-MB)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-PX)活性及丙二醛水平;光学显微镜观察心肌形态;采用TUNEL和免疫组织化学法分别检测心肌细胞凋亡及心肌凋亡蛋白Bcl-2、Bax的表达。结果与对照组比较,再灌注组大鼠CK MB、丙二醛水平明显升高,GSH-PX活性明显降低,Bcl-2、Bax、Bax/Bcl-2明显升高(P0.01);与再灌注组比较,保护组大鼠CK-MB、丙二醛水平明显降低,GSH-PX活性明显升高,Bcl-2明显升高,Bax、Bax/Bcl-2明显降低(P0.01)。与保护组比较,再灌注组大鼠可见大面积心肌梗死,凋亡细胞数明显增加(P0.01)。结论依达拉奉能够减轻大鼠心肌损伤程度,其机制与减少自由基损伤、抑制心肌细胞凋亡有关。     

复方黄根对四氯化碳所致大鼠慢性肝损伤的保护作用

[目的]研究复方黄根对大鼠慢性肝损伤的保护作用及可能机制.[方法]制备大鼠四氯化碳(CCl4)慢性肝损伤模型,观察复方黄根对肝损伤大鼠血清丙氨酸氨基转移酶(ALT)、天冬氨酸转氨酶(AST)活性,总蛋白(TP)、清蛋白(Alb)和羟脯氨酸(Hyp)水平的变化以及肝组织匀浆超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、丙二醛(MDA)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)水平的影响,放免法检测透明质酸(HA)、Ⅲ型前胶原肽(PⅢP)水平,免疫组化法测肝组织转化生长因子-β1(TGF-β1)的表达,并观察肝组织病理学改变.[结果]复方黄根可显著降低CCl4所致大鼠慢性肝损伤血清中ALT、AST、HA、PⅢP、Hyp水平,升高血清中Alb、TP水平;升高肝组织中SOD、GSH-Px的活性,并可降低MDA的水平;免疫组化结果表明复方黄根能抑制TGF-β1表达;病理观察结果能减轻慢性肝损伤的肝脏损伤程度.[结论]复方黄根有明显的保肝和抗肝纤维化作用,其作用机制可能与抗脂质过氧化和抑制肝组织TGF-β1的表达有关.     

Mechanisms of protection by melatonin against acetaminophen-induced liver injury in mice

The present study was performed to determine whether melatonin protects mouse liver against severe damage induced by acetaminophen (APAP) administration and where melatonin primarily functions in the metabolic pathway of APAP to protect mouse liver against APAP-induced injury. Treatment of mice with melatonin (50 or 100 mg/kg, p.o.) 8 or 4 hr before APAP administration (750 mg/kg, p.o.) suppressed the increase in plasma alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities in a dose- and a time-dependent manner. Melatonin treatment (100 mg/kg, p.o.) 4 hr before APAP administration remarkably inhibited centrilobular hepatic necrosis with inflammatory cell infiltration and increases in hepatic lipid peroxidation and myeloperoxidase activity, an index of tissue neutrophil infiltration, as well as release of nitric oxide and interleukin-6 into blood circulation at 9 hr after APAP administration. However, melatonin neither affected hepatic reduced glutathione (GSH) content nor spared hepatic GSH consumption by APAP treatment. Moreover, pretreatment with melatonin 4 hr before APAP administration did not influence the induction of hepatic heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) by APAP and melatonin alone did not induce HSP70 in mouse liver. These results indicate that exogenously administered melatonin exhibits a potent hepatoprotective effect against APAP-induced hepatic damage probably downstream of the activity of cytochrome P450 2E1, which works upstream of GSH conjugation in the pathway of APAP metabolism, via its anti-nitrosative and anti-inflammatory activities in addition to its antioxidant activity.     

药物诱发非酒精性脂肪性肝病患者肝损伤的机制

肝脏通过代谢、转运和清除异物等功能在降低药物毒性方面起着至关重要的作用。药物性肝损伤（drug—inducedliverinjury．DIH）是西方国家急性肝衰竭的主要病因,由于久坐的生活方式和摄入热量过度,我国还面临着肥胖和非酒精性脂肪性肝病（non—alcoholicfattvliverdisease,NAFLD）的困扰。脂肪肝可增大各种疾病（如糖尿病、心血管疾病和不孕不育症等）的风险,是威胁公众健康的又一主要问题。为了治疗相关疾病,NAFLD患者平均使用的药量远高于非NAFLD患者,增大了患DILI的风险。希望临床医生重视该特殊人群用药的安全性。     

Lentivirus-mediated superoxide dismutase1 gene delivery protects against oxidative stress-induced liver injury in mice.

BACKGROUND: The exposure of liver to hepatotoxins, and their subsequent metabolism, results in increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), one of the major culprits in causing both acute liver cell injury and chronic liver diseases. The aim of this present study is to investigate the protective effects of lentiviral vector-mediated copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (LV-SOD1) gene transfer against ROS-induced cytotoxicity in Hep G2 cells and liver injury in mice. METHODS: In vitro SOD1 efficacy was tested against two ROS-generating systems: hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase (HX/XO) and hydroxyethyl radicals (HER), whereas in vivo SOD1 efficacy was evaluated in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver injury in C57BL/6 mice. RESULTS: LV-SOD1 transduction in Hep G2 cells resulted in a significant increase in SOD activity in cell lysates, and it significantly decreased the toxicity induced by HX/XO and HER. High SOD1 expression in the liver was achieved via portal vein injection of LV-SOD1 in mice and these high levels were observed for 30 days, the length of the experiment to date. SOD1 overexpression significantly decreased the toxicity and restored liver function in the CCl4-treated mice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate for the first time that LV transduction led to the long-term expression of fully functional transgene expression in both in vitro and in vivo systems.     

In vitro and in vivo protective effects of proteoglycan isolated from mycelia of Ganoderma lucidum on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury

AIM: To investigate the possible mechanism of the protective effects of a bioactive fraction,Ganoderma lucidum proteoglycan (GLPG) isolated from Ganoderma lucidum mycelia, against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury. METHODS: A liver injury model was induced by carbon tetrachloride. Cytotoxicity was measured by MTT assay.The activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were determined with an automatic multifunction-biochemical analyzer and the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD)and TNF-alpha were determined following the instructions of SOD kit and TNF radioimmunoassay kit. Liver sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H and E) for histological evaluation and examined under light microscope. RESULTS: We found that GLPG can alleviate the L-02 liver cells injury induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) through the measurements of ALT and AST activities and the administration of GLPG to L-02 cells did not display any toxicity. Furthermore, histological analysis of mice liver injury induced by CCl4 with or without GLPG pretreatment indicated that GLPG can significantly suppress the toxicity induced by CCl4 in mice liver. We also found that GLPG reduced TNF-alpha level induced by CCl4 in the plasma of mice, whereas increased SOD activity in the rat serum. CONCLUSION: GLPG has hepatic protective activity against CCl4-induced injury both in vitro and in vivo. The possible anti-hepatotoxic mechanisms may be related to the suppression of TNF-alpha level and the free radical scavenging activity.     

中药虎杖对大鼠肝脏缺血性损伤保护的形态学观察

目的研究中药虎杖煎剂在治疗大鼠肝脏缺血性损伤后肝组织的病理学改变,证实该药对急性肝脏缺血性损伤有治疗作用.方法建立大鼠常温下肝门完全阻断的模型,观察肝脏缺血损伤后虎杖组和普食组在不同的时间段肝组织的病理学改变.结果通过光镜和电镜发现,术后1 d普食组与虎杖组肝细胞肿胀,结构破坏,肝窦内皮细胞孔隙加大,内皮破坏,内皮之间可见孔道.术后4 d普食组肝小叶结构仍破坏,线粒体肿胀,颗粒变性.而虎杖组未见肝细胞坏死改变,细胞膜特化部分如桥粒、毛细胆管区微绒毛有轻微破坏.术后7 d普食组肝细胞变性仍可见,线粒体轻度肿胀,基质变化,膜结构欠清楚,粗面内质网欠规则.而虎杖组肝细胞基本恢复正常形态.结论虎杖煎剂具有改善损伤肝组织的微循环,抑制白细胞、血小板与肝脏内皮细胞的粘附,达到促进肝细胞再生、修复损伤的能力.为临床上肝脏外科围手术期的应用奠定了病理学基础.