The comparison in daily intake of nutrients, dietary habits and body composition of female college students by body mass index

The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in the body composition, dietary habits, daily intake of nutrients and clinical blood indices in female college students by body mass index of normal weight, overweight and obese. The subjects of this research were 141 respondents of a survey carried out on students, and subjects were given 60 minutes to answer questionnaires, by recording their own answers. The average heights and weights of subjects by BMI were 162.17 cm, 52.73 kg in normal weight group, 162.35 cm, 62.22 kg in overweight group and 161.72 cm, 69.82 kg in obesity group, respectively. As for the survey daily of meals, starving breakfast and kind of snacks of subjects were significantly different among the groups by BMI. In animal protein food intakes, meat intake was the highest ''every day'' food consumed by subjects, and there was a significant difference in distribution of BMI among subjects. Fruits, and greenish and yellow vegetables intakes were the highest ''every day'' foods indicated by the normal weight group. Consumption of carbonated beverages and juices showed a significant difference among groups by BMI. The average of total-cholesterol was the overweight group was the higher value. There was a significant difference in diastolic blood pressure and systolic blood pressure among the groups by BMI. Average daily calories intake levels were insufficient and the intake ratio of carbohydrates, protein, and fat was the normal weight group 68:17:15, the overweight group 64:18:18 and the obese group 73:14:13. Results of the daily vitamin intake analyses displayed riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, and folic acid levels lower than the RI levels. Fe intake was the normal weight group 81%, overweight group 76%, obese group 59% of the RI level. Therefore, it is necessary for college students to establish regular meals, good quality snacks and consuming more vitamin and mineral nutritions for optimal health conditions.     

Dietary sodium intake in young Korean adults and its relationship with eating frequency and taste preference

Dietary sodium intake is considered one of the major causal factors for hypertension. Thus, to control the increase of blood pressure and reduce the risk of hypertension-related clinical complications, a reduction in sodium intake is recommended. The present study aimed at determining the association of dietary sodium intake with meal and snack frequency, snacking time, and taste preference in Korean young adults aged 20-26 years, using a 125-item dish-frequency questionnaire. The mean dietary sodium intakes of men and women were 270.6 mmol/day and 213.1 mmol/day, which were approximately 310% and 245% of the daily sodium intake goal for Korean men and women, respectively. Dietary sodium intake was positively correlated with systolic blood pressure in the total group, and BMI in the total and men-only groups. In the total and men-only groups, those who consumed meals more times per day consumed more dietary sodium, but the number of times they consumed snacks was negatively correlated with dietary sodium intake in the total, men-only, and women-only groups. In addition, those who consumed snacks in the evening consumed more sodium than those who did so in the morning in the men-only group. The sodium intake was also positively associated with preference for salty and sweet taste in the total and women-only groups. Such a high intake of sodium in these young subjects shows that a reduction in sodium intake is important for the prevention of hypertension and related diseases in the future.     

Presence of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents and University students in Crete (Greece), according to different levels of snack consumption

The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of cardiovascular and metabolic syndrome (MetSyn) risk factors in adolescents and University students in Crete (Greece), according to different levels of snack consumption. 237 adolescents (14.2-16.3 years) and 196 University students (19.5-31.5 years) participated during 2002/3 and 2004/5. Dietary intake (24-h dietary recalls), cardiorespiratory fitness, smoking habits, time spent watching television, anthropometric, blood pressure and biochemical measurements were assessed in all subjects. Adolescents consumed snacks more often than University students (62% vs. 49.5%, P < 0.05) and had significantly higher total energy intake (8629 vs. 7641 kJ, P < 0.05) and energy intake from snacks (2537 vs. 1767 kJ, P < 0.001). Snack consumers had higher energy intake than non-consumers in both groups. No relationship was found between snack consumption and MetSyn risk factors, cardiorespiratory fitness and smoking. However, University students who consumed snacks had 15.36 times higher risk of having ≥2 MetSyn risk factors than adolescent snack consumers, had considerably higher LDL-cholesterol levels, total: HDL-cholesterol ratio and watched more television than non-consumers. These findings emphasize the need for developing effective nutrition interventions to promote healthier snack choices in adolescents and young adults with characteristics similar to our sample, in order to prevent cardiovascular risk later in adulthood.     

Daily menus can result in suboptimal nutrient intakes,especially calcium,of adolescents living in dormitories

The aims of this study were to evaluate daily menus in Croatian dormitories and to assess the overall intake of dairy products among resident adolescents. For this purpose, 168 daily menus were chosen for nutritional evaluation by random sampling. In addition, 227 adolescents (133 girls and 94 boys) participated in a questionnaire focused on food intake in addition to the meals supplied in dormitories with the aim to assess the amount and the type of dairy products consumed. The results showed that only 35% of the daily menus were nutritionally balanced. Most of the menus provided an excess of energy, protein, carbohydrate, saturated fat, phosphorus, riboflavin, and vitamin A. The levels of calcium and magnesium in the menus were suboptimal. The menus offered to adolescents provided approximately 2 servings of dairy products per day. Milk was the most often supplied dairy product (1.1 servings per day), whereas yogurt had the lowest frequency of serving (0.2 servings per day). The most preferred dairy-based snack for both sexes was milk. Dairy-based snacks provided about 1 serving per day for both sexes and contributed to about 30% of the recommended dietary allowances for calcium. Adolescents who regularly consumed dairy-based snacks meet the recommendations (3.2 servings of dairy products per day and about 98% recommended dietary allowances for calcium). We conclude that the institutional menu planning should be improved because the intake of dairy snacks will continue to be a problem for achieving a healthy diet in adolescences.     

Dietary sugar intake and dietary behaviors in Korea: a pooled study of 2,599 children and adolescents aged 9-14 years

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESDietary sugar intake, particularly added sugar and sugar-sweetened beverages, has received worldwide attention recently. Investigation of dietary behaviors may facilitate understanding of dietary sugar intakes of children and adolescents. However, the relationship between dietary sugar intake and dietary behaviors in the Korean population has not been investigated. Thus, this study aimed to estimate dietary sugar intake and food sources according to sex as well as examine the relationship of dietary sugar intake with frequent snacking and dietary patterns among Korean children and adolescents.SUBJECTS/METHODSWe pooled data from five studies involving Korean children and adolescents conducted from 2002 to 2011. A total of 2,599 subjects aged 9-14 years were included in this study. Each subject completed more than 3 days of dietary records.RESULTSMean daily total sugar intake was 46.6 g for boys and 54.3 g for girls. Compared with boys, girls showed higher sugar intakes from fruits (7.5 g for boys and 8.8 g for girls; P = 0.0081) and processed foods (27.9 g for boys and 34.9 g for girls; P < 0.0001). On average, 95.4% of boys and 98.8% of girls consumed snacks during the study period, and total sugar intake showed a significantly increasing trend with increasing energy intake from snacks (P < 0.0001 for both sexes). Two dietary patterns were identified by cluster analysis: Traditional and Westernized patterns. Total sugar intake was higher in the Westernized pattern (56.2 g for boys and 57.2 g for girls) than in the Traditional pattern (46.5 g for boys and 46.3 g for girls).CONCLUSIONSThese results suggest that multilateral and practical development of a nutrition education and intervention program that considers dietary behaviors as well as absolute sugar intake is required to prevent excessive sugar intake in Korean children and adolescents.     

石河子大学少数民族医学生膳食和营养状况

目的 通过对石河子大学医学院少数民族学生进行体格检查和膳食营养状况调查,为少数民族大学生膳食营养指导提供依据.方法 采用24 h回顾法与称重法进行膳食调查,了解少数民族大学生膳食结构、能量及各营养素摄入状况;通过测量身高、体重和腰围,了解其生长发育状况.结果 少数民族大学生膳食构成以粮谷类为主,动物性食物摄入量略低于正常,蔬菜、水果摄入量严重不足,维生素A、维生素B1、维生素B2、叶酸、维生素C和钙严重缺乏.蛋白质、铁平均摄入量能达到推荐摄入量,但优质蛋白质仅占蛋白质总摄入量的22.19％,血红素铁摄入量仅占铁总摄入量的4.69％.能量摄入男女生均不足.男、女生消瘦人数分别占男、女生总人数的10.42％和22.12％,腹型肥胖人数分别占男、女生总人数的20.83％和1.77％.结论 少数民族大学生膳食结构、饮食习惯不合理,能量及大部分营养素摄入不足,男、女生均存在一定程度营养不良,应加强对少数民族大学生的营养知识教育,提高膳食营养质量,改善身体健康状况.     

Are energy and protein requirements met in hospital?

Background

Malnutrition is a problem within hospitals, which impacts upon clinical outcomes. The present audit assesses whether a hospital menu meets the energy and protein standards recommended by the British Dietetic Association's (BDA) Nutrition and Hydration Digest and determines the contribution of oral nutrition supplements (ONS) and additional snacks.

Methods

Patients in a UK South West hospital were categorised as ‘nutritionally well’ or ‘nutritionally vulnerable’ in accordance with their Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool score. Energy and protein content of food selected from the menu (‘menu choice’), menu food consumed (‘hospital intake’) and total food consumed including snacks (‘overall intake’) were calculated and compared with the standards.

Results

In total , 93 patients were included. For ‘nutritionally well’ patients (n = 81), energy and protein standards were met by 11.1% and 33.3% (‘menu choice’); 7.4% and 22.2% (‘hospital intake’); and 14.8% and 28.4% (‘overall intake’). For ‘nutritionally vulnerable’ patients (n = 12), energy and protein standards were met by 0% and 8.3% (‘menu choice’); 0% and 8.3% (‘hospital intake’); and 8.3% and 16.7% (‘overall intake’). Ten percent of patients consumed ONS. Patients who consumed hospital snacks (34%) were more likely to meet the nutrient standards (P ≤ 0.001).

Conclusions

The present audit demonstrated that most patients are not meeting the nutrient standards recommended by the BDA Nutrition and Hydration Digest. Recommendations include the provision of energy/protein‐dense snacks, as well as menu, offering ONS where clinically indicated, in addition to training for staff. A food services dietitian is ideally placed to lead this, forming a vital link between patients, caterers and clinical teams.     

苏州某高职院校女生膳食营养状况的比较分析

[目的]了解高职女生膳食营养状况的营养教育成效。[方法]采用称重法、膳食频率调查法和24小时回顾法对274名学习过“营养与膳食”课程后一年的高职女生（称营养组）和同年级146名未学习过营养相关课程的高职女生（称非营养组）进行连续3d的膳食调查。[结果]①营养组热能和蛋白质摄入达到膳食营养素推荐摄入量（RNI）水平的学生分别占27．94％和47．23％，而非营养组分别占13．01％和30．82％，差异有统计学意义（P〈0．01）。营养组钙、铁、锌、维生素A、维生素B1、维生素B2、维生素PP、维生素C摄入都较非营养组多，差异有统计学意义（P〈0．01）。②两组学生的三大营养素供能比例均不合理，其中脂肪供能比例偏高，碳水化合物供能比例偏低；两组学生的三餐热能分配均不合理，早餐热能偏低，晚餐热能偏高，但营养组的分配比相对合理些。[结论]营养教育对改善青少年的食物摄入有明显效果。     

Energy distribution patterns in Australia and its relationship to age,gender and body mass index among children and adults

Aim: To assess daily energy distribution among Australians, provide evidence on the relative importance of eating occasions to energy intake and its relationship to age, gender and body mass index. Methods: Dietary data collected via 24‐hour recalls during the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (n = 10 851 adults) and the 2007 National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (4837 = children) were analysed. Percentage of total energy intake was tabulated according to time, eating occasions, body mass index, age and gender. Results: The Australians consumed three main meals and two to three snacks, with the highest energy intake at ‘dinner’. Among children, ‘breakfast’ accounted for 15% of the energy, ‘lunch’ 19%, ‘dinner’ 30% and ‘snacks’ 35%. For adults, energy from ‘breakfast’ was 14%, ‘lunch’ 21%, ‘dinner’ 37% and ‘snacks’ 28%. Younger children and older adults consumed a lower per cent energy during the later part of the day. No difference in energy distribution was observed by gender. No difference in body mass index was observed for children and inconsistent differences were seen for adults. Conclusion: A high proportion of energy was consumed at ‘dinner’, but snacks were also an important source of energy intake. A variety of energy distribution patterns appear to be moderated by age. Older children consumed significantly less at breakfast and more snacks than younger children. In contrast, older adults consumed more energy at breakfast and less as snacks compared with younger adults. The findings indicate some key messages for informing primary prevention strategies among specific age groups including the need to attain a more even distribution of energy throughout the day.     

Sodium intake from meals and snacks consumed by college students

This investigation was designed to compute the total sodium intake from meals and snacks consumed by selected college students. Most students used carbonated beverages, candies, gums, cookies, and salted snack items. They consumed salted snack items mostly as evening snacks. Mean sodium intake was found to be 3,904 mg. for men and 2,628 mg. for women, without taking into consideration the use of table salt. Sodium density per kilocalorie per day was 1.40 and 1.41 for men and women, respectively, suggesting that the differences in intakes were due to women's lower caloric intake. Sodium intake was greater from regular meals than from snack foods. Evening snacks contributed more to the daily sodium intake than morning and afternoon snacks. It can be concluded that sodium intake of college students needs careful assessment. According to the Food and Nutrition Board, the most effective way to maintain intake within the suggested range is to reduce the amount of salt added at table or in cooking and to reduce moderately the selection of obviously salty foods (9). College students need to be made aware of the sodium content of foods they select for lunch, dinner, and evening snacks, as well as the amount of salt they add at the table.     

Sugar consumption among Canadians of all ages

According to the 2004 Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition, Canadians consumed an average of 110 grams (26 teaspoons) of sugar a day, approximately 20% of their total energy intake. While over 30% of this sugar came from vegetables and fruit, 35% came from the "other" foods category, which consists of items such as soft drinks, salad dressings and candy. The top ten sources of sugar accounted for approximately 85% of daily sugar intake. Beverages (milk, fruit juice, fruit drinks and regular soft drinks) represented 44% of the sugar consumed by children and adolescents, and 35% of that consumed by adults. Diabetics' average sugar intake was less than that of non-diabetics, but at 17%, exceeded the recommended 10% cut-off of total daily calories.     

Food allergies in children affect nutrient intake and growth

OBJECTIVES: To identify if specific food allergies, elimination diets, or other variables associated with food allergies have an impact on the growth and nutrient intake of children with food allergies. DESIGN: Measurements of height, weight, and body mass index were used to determine potential growth problems. Estimates of energy and nutrient intakes were based on 3-day diet records. A questionnaire was used to determine number of food allergies and other variables. SUBJECTS: Ninety-eight children with food allergies (subjects, mean age 3.7 +/- 2.3 years) and 99 children without food allergies (controls, mean age 4.1 +/- 2.4 years) participated in this age-matched, consecutive sampling, cross-sectional study. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PERFORMED: Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel statistics using general association and Fisher Exact Test, with 2-sided probability, were conducted. RESULTS: Children with two or more food allergies were shorter, based on height-for-age percentiles, than those with one food allergy (P<.05). More than 25% of children in both groups consumed less than 67% of the DRI (RDA or AI) for calcium, vitamin D, and vitamin E. More children with cow's milk allergy or multiple food allergies consumed dietary calcium less than age- and gender-specific recommendations compared with children without cow's milk allergy and/or one food allergy. The possibility of consuming a less than recommended intake of calcium and vitamin D in children with food allergy was less if the child received nutrition counseling (P<.05) or consumed a safe infant/toddler formula or fortified soy beverage. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Children diagnosed with food allergies need an annual nutrition assessment to prevent growth problems or inadequate nutrient intake. Children with milk allergies or multiple food allergies are at greater risk. Nutrition education needs to address how to avoid all forms of the allergen and incorporate alternative nutrient-dense foods. This population would benefit from the development and validation of a medical nutrition therapy protocol.     

Effect of Snacking Frequency on Adolescents'' Dietary Intakes and Meeting National Recommendations

PURPOSE: To determine how snacking level impacts intake of nutrients and food groups and assists in meeting recommendations outlined in the U.S. Department of Agriculture's MyPyramid Food Guidance System. METHODS: Dietary data based on 24-hour recall from 4357 adolescents 12-19 years of age participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2004 (NHANES) were analyzed. Regression analyses were applied to examine the effect of snacking on nutrient and food group intake and to determine its effect on the likelihood of meeting MyPyramid recommendations. RESULTS: Food energy, carbohydrate, total sugars, and vitamin C intake were positively associated, whereas protein and fat intake were negatively associated, with snacking frequency. Fruit intake increased, whereas solid fat intake decreased, as snacking incidence rose. Increasing snacking frequency was also associated with a greater likelihood of meeting milk and oil recommendations for boys and meeting fruit recommendations for both genders. Non-Hispanic black adolescents were less likely to meet their milk recommendations at low and high snacking levels and more likely to meet their fruit recommendations at high levels only. Foods consumed as snacks provided 12-39% of the day's total number of portions of the five MyPyramid food groups, 35% of total discretionary calorie intake, and 43% of total added sugar intake. CONCLUSIONS: Snacking frequency affects intake of macronutrients and a few micronutrients and promotes consumption of fruits. Top food choices for snacks provide an excess of discretionary calories in the form of added sugars and fats. Modification of these choices would assist adolescents in consuming diets more consistent with national recommendations.     

Deficiencies in nutritional intake in patients admitted with diabetes-related foot complications

Aim: Adequate nutritional intake is an essential component for timely wound healing. The present research aimed to identify the frequency of inadequate dietary intake, including the specific nutritional elements most frequently lacking, in a group of patients admitted with diabetes‐related foot complications. Methods: Consecutive patients admitted to a diabetic foot unit underwent a dietary assessment, which included the retrospective collection of a seven‐day food history for the period just prior to admission. The collected data were entered into FoodWorks, and comparisons were made with recommendations made by national guidelines. Results: Thirty‐five patients underwent nutritional assessment, 74% male and 26% having impaired renal function. Protein consumption was in excess of daily recommended intake, and although the overall fat intake as a percentage of total calories consumed was in keeping with national guidelines, the intake of saturated fat was inappropriately high. Of the 12 micronutrients assessed, niacin and vitamin C were appropriately consumed by all; average intake of potassium, phosphorus and thiamine approached recommended levels, while the intake of magnesium, calcium, zinc, riboflavin, folate and vitamin A all fell short of recommended daily requirements. No dietary differences were identified between individuals with normal and abnormal renal function, but deficiencies in calcium and iron were identified only in women. Conclusion: Dietary deficiencies of macronutrients were not identified in individuals admitted with diabetes‐related foot complications, but many patients were found to be consuming well below the daily recommended daily intake of one or more of the micronutrients deemed necessary for normal wound healing.     

Weight indicators and nutrient intake in children and adolescents do not vary by sugar content in ready-to-eat cereal: results from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2006

Few studies have explored the relationship between sugar content in cereal and health outcome among children and adolescents. This study was designed to investigate the associations between ready-to-eat cereals, categorized by sugar content, with weight indicators and nutrient intake profiles. Data collected from 6- to 18-year-old US children and adolescents (N = 9660) in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-06 were used to analyze cereal consumption. Body mass index (BMI), BMI-for-age, waist-to-height ratio, percent overweight or obese, mean day-1 intake, and usual daily intake of macronutrients and micronutrients were the dependent variables; day-1 cereal intake, categorized by tertiles of sugar content, was the main independent variable. Weighted regression with adjustment for the survey design was used to model the dependent variables as a function of day-1 cereal intake, adjusting for age group, sex, race/ethnicity, total day-1 intake of energy, calcium and sugar, the Healthy Eating Index-2005 total score, and household income. For all tertiles of sugar classifications of cereal, children who consumed cereal had significantly lower BMI compared with children who consumed no cereal (P's < .05). Similarly, when compared with children who consumed no cereal, those who ate cereal consumed significantly less fat and cholesterol and significantly more carbohydrates, sugar, whole grains, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B₆, folic acid, vitamin B₁₂, vitamin C, calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc. Lower weight and positive nutrient profiles were associated with cereal consumption regardless of sugar content.     

Meal and Snacking Patterns of Students

A 1981 survey of 3,309 students in grades 3–12 enrolled in 135 Louisiana schools was used to determine their meal and snacking patterns. The data were analyzed according to three grade divisions: elementary, 3–6; junior high, 7–8; and senior high, 9–12.
An analysis of variance was computed with grade division as the independent variable. Students' responses to questions concerning the consumption of meals, snacks and vitamin supplements, and tasting new, unfamiliar or disliked food were the dependent variables.
A majority of students consumed three meals daily; however, breakfast was frequently skipped. Breakfast was usually eaten at home; 15% ate the school breakfast. Most students consumed the school lunch; many reported tasting new, unfamiliar or disliked food as part of these meals. Students snacked, most doing so in the afternoon. Students in grades 9–12 consumed significantly more snacks than their counterparts. Many snacks were purchased at school, primarily from a concession stand. Almost 50% took a vitamin supplement.     

Laboratory Determined Sugar Content and Composition of Commercial Infant Formulas,Baby Foods and Common Grocery Items Targeted to Children

Excess added sugar consumption is tied to poor health outcomes in children. The sugar content of beverages and foods children are exposed to is mostly unknown, yet this information is imperative for understanding potential risks from overconsumption of sugars in early life. We determined actual sugar content by conducting a blinded laboratory analysis in infant formulas, breakfast cereals, packaged baked goods and yogurts. One hundred samples were sent to an independent laboratory for analysis via gas chromatography. Sugar content and composition was determined and total sugar was compared against nutrition labels. Of the 100 samples analyzed, 74% contained ≥20% of total calories per serving from added sugars. Nutrient label data underestimated or overestimated actual sugars and ~25% of all samples had actual total sugar values that were either <10% or >10% of labeled total sugar. Many products that are frequently marketed to and consumed by infants and young children contain sugars in amounts that differ from nutrition labels and often in excess of recommended daily levels. These findings provide further support for adding more comprehensive sugar labeling to food and beverage products, specifically those marketed to, or commonly consumed by, children.     

Dietary habits of the primary to secondary school population and implications for oral health

Surveys have shown increases in dental caries in young persons in Kuwait. Intake of sugar and carbohydrates has increased, as has the incidence of obesity. The objective of this study was to identify dietary practices and the potential for dental disease in primary, intermediate, and secondary school students in a health region. A random sample of 600 students aged 8, 13, and 17 yrs in 12 schools (6 boys' schools and 6 girls' schools) received a questionnaire. Responses were analyzed by age group, gender, and dietary practices at home and in school. The dietary composition of meals tended to be similar at all ages and in both genders. A total of 97% of 8-yr-old, 96% of 13-yr-old, and 92% of 17-yr-old students reported snacking at school. Sugar intake from identified snacks alone was calculated as 193.8 g/day or the estimated equivalent of 746 calories, and daily fat intake was 70.17 g. A total of 88.6% of respondents (56.6% of all children) used fluoridated toothpaste; 44.4% of all children (22.6% of 8-yr-old, 14.1% of 13-yr-old, and 7.7% of 17-yr-old students) reported brushing their teeth three times per day. Use of school snacks increased with age, while use of a toothbrush decreased. Fundamental oral hygiene procedures such as brushing and use of fluoridated toothpaste appear to have been implemented. Health workers need to provide new and pertinent oral health messages, nutrition counseling, attention to diet, and reinforcement with parents, food preparers, health facilities, and intermediate and secondary schools.     

Adolescents living in boarding houses in Nsukka,Enugu State,Nigeria II: Quality of school meals and snacks and their contribution to nutrient intake

The quality of school meals and snacks and their contribution to nutrient intake of 25 male and 25 female adolescents aged 13–18 years were determined. The composition of the meals/snacks were determined by chemical analysis and use of food composition tables. Their quality was determined using the nutrient density concept and their ability to meet the nutritional needs of the adolescents. Average serving sizes of meals consumed by the adolescents were also determined. School meals were found to be higher in moisture and lower in fat contents than most snacks, hence their low energy density. The index of nutritional quality (INQ) for school meals and snacks show that most Nigerian foods/diets are able to provide enough protein and iron when consumed at recommended energy levels. On the other hand, they do not furnish enough calcium. The quantities of school meals/snacks consumed by these adolescents’ were also found to be small. The male adolescents obtained more nutrients from school meals than the female adolescents while females obtained more nutrients from snacks than the male adolescents. School meals contributed 66–79% of the energy, 73–80% of the protein, 55–77% of the calcium, 84–91% of the iron and 65–78% of the phosphorus intake of these adolescents. On the other hand, snacks contributed 21–34% of the energy, 21–27% of the protein, 23–45% of the calcium, 9–16% of the iron and 23–35% of the phosphorus intake of these adolescents. Snacks therefore made substantial contribution to the adolescents nutrient need by contributing in some cases about a third of their daily nutrient requirement and/or actual intake. Strategies for improving the health and performance of adolescents have been suggested.     

Effects of increasing increments of fat- and sugar-rich snacks in the diet on energy and macronutrient intake in lean and overweight men

Two studies have examined the effect on energy intake and macronutrient selection of increasing increments of mandatory high-fat or high-sugar snacks into the diet in men. The present study used a within-subject, repeated-measures design. In each experiment, six lean and six overweight, unrestrained men were each studied over three 7 d treatment periods, during which they were given mandatory snacks of the same energy density (550 kJ/100 g) comprising the following (in terms of percentage energy as fat-carbohydrate-protein): high-fat, 80:10:10; high-sugar, 10:80:10, of which 65 % was sugar, and 15 % starch. Subjects were given 0, 1.5 or 3.0 MJ/d snacks, in a randomised counterbalanced design, to be consumed mid-morning and mid-afternoon. Throughout each day, subjects had access ad libitum to fifteen high-protein, fifteen high-fat and fifteen high-carbohydrate foods, rotated on a 3 d menu. Mandatory high-fat snacks significantly elevated energy intake and fat intake, whereas high-sugar snacks elevated energy intake and carbohydrate intake (all P<0.02). Mandatory increases in sugar intake did not displace fat from the diet or vice versa. It was concluded that the ingestion of up to 3 MJ/d high-fat and high-sugar foods promoted weak compensation (18 % and 30 %, respectively) and therefore elevated daily energy intake by approximately 2.0-2.5 MJ.