The effect of syringe exchange use on high-risk injection drug users: a cohort study

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether syringe exchange program use is associated with cessation of syringe sharing among high-risk injection drug users. DESIGN AND METHODS: Between 1992 and 1996, street-recruited injection drug users were interviewed and received HIV testing and counseling semi-annually, as part of a dynamic cohort study. We examined a cohort of 340 high-risk injection drug users for whom two observations, 6-months apart, were available and who reported syringe sharing at the first interview. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the relationship between syringe exchange program use and cessation of syringe sharing, while controlling for confounding factors. RESULTS: At follow-up interview, 60% (204 of 340) reported quitting syringe sharing. High-risk injection drug users who began using the syringe exchange program were more likely to quit sharing syringes [adjusted odds ratio (AOR), 2.68; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.35-5.33], as were those who continued using the syringe exchange program (AOR,1.98; 95% CI, 1.05-3.75) in comparison with non-syringe exchange program users, while controlling for confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS: The initiation and continuation of syringe exchange program use among high-risk injection drug users is independently associated with cessation of syringe sharing. Syringe exchange program use can be an important component in reducing the spread of blood-borne infectious diseases among high-risk injection drug users.     

Syringe HIV seroprevalence and behavioural and demographic characteristics of intravenous drug users in Sydney, Australia, 1987

The contents of needles and syringes returned by intravenous drug users to two Sydney needle and syringe exchange centres were analysed for HIV antibodies by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Reactive and borderline samples were further tested by the Western blot method. Basic demographic and needle sharing data were also collected from the clients of the exchanges. Of a sample of 1544 returned syringes, 48 (3%) were confirmed as containing HIV-infected blood. The proportion of infected syringes at exchange 2 was 6% (33 out of 545), which was significantly greater (P less than 0.05) than the proportion of exchange 1 at 1.5% (15 out of 999). The difference in seroprevalence between the two centres may be related to the behavioural characteristics of the client populations that attended each of the exchanges. The maintenance of a low syringe HIV seroprevalence (1-1.5%) over a 7-month period at one exchange may indicate that the availability of sterile needles and syringes prevented transmission of HIV among the clients of that exchange. HIV antibody testing of the contents of used syringes is a potentially valuable method of monitoring HIV infection among intravenous drug users. In this study, syringe exchange schemes have proved to be suitable venues for investigating the demographic characteristics and risk-taking behaviours of this population.     

Doing harm reduction better: syringe exchange in the United States

Objective   To trace the growth of syringe exchange programs (SEPs) in the United States since 1994–95 and assess the current state of SEPs.
Methods   Annual surveys of US SEPs known to North American Syringe Exchange Network (NASEN). Surveys mailed to executive directors with follow-up interviews by telephone and/or e-mail. Response rates have varied between 70% and 88% since surveys were initiated in 1996.
Results   The numbers of programs known to NASEN have increased from 68 in 1994–95 to 186 in 2007. Among programs participating in the survey, numbers of syringes exchanged have increased from 8.0 million per year to 29.5 million per year, total annual budgets have increased from $6.3 to $19.6 million and public funding (from state and local governments) has increased from $3.9 to $14.4 million. In 2007, 89% of programs permitted secondary exchange and 76% encouraged it. Condoms, referrals to substance abuse treatment, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) counseling and testing and naloxone for overdose were among the most commonly provided services in addition to basic syringe exchange. Each of these services was provided by 40% or more of SEPs in 2007.
Conclusions   While syringe exchange has remained controversial in the United States, there has been very substantial growth in numbers of programs, syringes exchange and program budgets. Utilizing secondary exchange to reach large numbers of injecting drug users and utilizing SEPs as a new platform for providing health and social services beyond basic syringe exchange have been the two major organizational strategies in the growth of SEPs in the United States.     

合成毒品使用人群中HIV感染状态及危险因素研究进展

合成毒品使用者中HIV感染率的地区分布变化较大,注射使用合成毒品者及使用合成毒品的男男性接触者中HIV感染的风险较高。在合成毒品使用者中,未婚、无业者,多药滥用,注射使用毒品以及共用注射器等毒品使用行为,多性伴、无保护性行为、性交易及性暴力等不安全性行为以及合并感染多种疾病等因素为HIV感染与传播的危险因素。加强禁毒力度,积极采取有针对性的干预和治疗措施,以期预防和减少HIV在我国合成毒品滥用者中的感染与传播。     

Determinants of HIV infection and recent risk behaviour among injecting drug users in Berlin by site of recruitment

This study investigated differences in prevalence and determinants of HIV infection, and in recent risk behaviour (previous 6 months) among injecting drug users (IDUs) who are in contact with different types of services for IDUs in Berlin. Participants (n = 557) were recruited from drug-free long-term treatment centres, a storefront agency and a syringe exchange bus. HIV seroprevalence was lowest (3.9%) at the treatment centres, and highest among IDUs at the storefront agency (20.7%). In logistic regression, independent risk factors for HIV infection were duration of injecting drug use, borrowing syringes in prison, sex with HIV-positive partners, and prostitution. Syringe sharing in prison was the most important independent determinant of HIV infection among all three subpopulations of IDUs. Participants entering long-term treatment were most likely, and IDUs at the syringe exchange bus were least likely to have borrowed and passed on syringes in the previous 6 months. In logistic regression, site of recruitment was independently associated with recent borrowing of syringes, but not with condom use. Injection of drugs other than heroin only, and injecting in prisons, were also independent predictors of recent borrowing. The results indicate that IDUs entering treatment form an important target group for health education. There is a need for AIDS prevention measures in prisons. The comparatively low levels of recent injection risk behaviour among IDUs at the syringe exchange bus suggest that this type of intervention may be effective in harm reduction.     

Effects of Amsterdam needle and syringe exchange.

The needle and syringe exchange in Amsterdam was initiated in 1984 by the Junky Union. To date, ample data are available to support the role of the needle exchange in facilitating drug injectors to use drugs in a safer way: no increase in drug use could be validated, participants of the exchange schemes were less involved in needle sharing, the supply of large quantities of needles to drug users did not lead to an increase in needle stick accidents by the general public, and, finally, the HIV prevalence among drug injectors has remained stable since 1986, while the incidence of acute hepatitis B has gone down.     

Writing About Risk: Use of Daily Diaries in Understanding Drug-User Risk Behaviors

As part of a larger syringe access and HIV risk study, a subsample of 23 current injection drug users completed daily diaries, highlighting activities related to syringe acquisition, use, and discard. Diaries have been previously utilized in a variety of psychological, public health, and nutrition studies to assess risk as well as correlated behaviors. We piloted the diary methodology in three northeastern U.S. cities (Hartford and New Haven, CT, and Springfield, MA) to learn about correlates of HIV risk. We discovered that the method provided advantages over several other qualitative and ethnographic methods. Results indicate that daily diaries elucidated (1) patterns of injection drug use, (2) sporadic and high-risk events, (3) HIV and hepatitis risk related to the syringe life cycle, and (4) emotional correlates of drug use. Furthermore, we witnessed an unexpected intervention effect that the diary may have in the lives of drug users.     

High street prices of syringes correlate with strict syringe possession laws

The current epidemic of injection drug use in the United States and abroad has precipitated an increase in transmission of infectious diseases, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and human T-lymphotrophic virus II (HTLV-II) in injection drug users (IDUs) who share syringes and other injection equipment. Sharing is often due to a lack of available sterile syringes, which is, in part, a result of laws and regulations controlling the purchase and possession of syringes. These laws, in turn, raise the price of questionably sterile black market syringes, inadvertently encouraging the reuse and sharing of syringes. To date, very little information has been gathered on the street price of syringes in different communities. We surveyed 42 needle exchange programs (NEPs) in the United States in July and August 1998 to determine the street prices of syringes. The relationship among local laws regulating syringe possession, the enforcement of those laws, and street syringe prices was examined. There was a strong correlation between the presence of syringe possession laws and higher street syringe price ($2.87 vs. $1.14, p< .01). In areas with syringe possession laws, cost was significantly higher when laws were perceived to be enforced strictly ($3.66 vs. $2.08, p<.01). Street prices for syringes are an easily quantifiable indirect measure of availability of sterile syringes and may reflect syringe sharing and reuse.     

Geographic proximity,policy and utilization of syringe exchange programmes

The objective of the research was to assess the effects of geographic proximity on the utilization of syringe exchange among injection drug users (IDUs) in New York City. Between 1994 and 1996, 805 IDUs were interviewed with a structured questionnaire. Geographic proximity was defined as living within a ten-minute walk. Eighty-one per cent of IDUs who lived close typically used a syringe exchange compared to 59% of those who lived further away. In multiple logistic regression analysis, those who lived close remained (adjusted odds ratio of 2.89; 95% CI 2.06 to 4.06, p = 0.001) more likely to use syringe exchange. Those who lived close were less likely to have engaged in receptive syringe sharing at last injection (adjusted odds ratio = 0.45, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.86, p = 0.015). In conclusion, locating exchange services in areas convenient to large numbers of IDUs may be critical for prevention of HIV infection.     

Drug injecting and HIV infection: new directions for social science research.

An overview is presented of the relationship between drug injecting and HIV infection. The pattern of spread of HIV infection among drug injectors and risk factors associated with the spread of HIV among drug injectors are considered, together with evidence on the adoption of behavior changes intended to reduce such risks. Some promising reduction in risky behaviors has been evident among established drug injectors. Public health prevention strategies, such as syringe distribution and exchange and AIDS outreach work, appear to have fostered decreases in HIV-related risks among drug injectors. The role of methadone maintenance remains uncertain. Despite advances, many obstacles remain. The future research agenda requires work on prevention strategies and the role of drug user treatment. Social scientists need to address the fact that patterns of drug-using behavior reflect powerful "structural factors" such as poverty, unemployment, and housing conditions.     

High Street Prices of Syringes Correlate with Strict Syringe Possession Laws

The current epidemic of injection drug use in the United States and abroad has precipitated an increase in transmission of infectious diseases, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and human T-lymphotrophic virus II (HTLV-II) in injection drug users (IDUs) who share syringes and other injection equipment. Sharing is often due to a lack of available sterile syringes, which is, in part, a result of laws and regulations controlling the purchase and possession of syringes. These laws, in turn, raise the price of questionably sterile black market syringes, inadvertently encouraging the reuse and sharing of syringes. To date, very little information has been gathered on the street price of syringes in different communities. We surveyed 42 needle exchange programs (NEPs) in the United States in July and August 1998 to determine the street prices of syringes. The relationship among local laws regulating syringe possession, the enforcement of those laws, and street syringe prices was examined. There was a strong correlation between the presence of syringe possession laws and higher street syringe price ($2.87 vs. $1.14, p <. 01). In areas with syringe possession laws, cost was significantly higher when laws were perceived to be enforced strictly ($3.66 vs. $2.08, p <. 01). Street prices for syringes are an easily quantifiable indirect measure of availability of sterile syringes and may reflect syringe sharing and reuse.     

NJ offers everything but needle exchange

New Jersey has a variety of programs aimed at getting drug users off drugs, but the State does not have a needle exchange program. There are 105 substance abuse treatment programs in New Jersey, which provide HIV testing and counseling. New Jersey has the fifth highest number of AIDS cases in the country, according to the most recent statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and HIV-positive women who are infected by men who inject illegal drugs are one of the fastest growing HIV populations in the State. New Jersey has instituted a program aimed at female partners of injection drug users to teach them about HIV prevention and offer testing and counseling. The State also has a drug treatment program for injecting drug users at risk for HIV. With this program, free treatment is available in one of four high-volume methadone maintenance programs, which collectively assist 1,800 to 2,000 injection drug users per year.     

第四轮中国全球基金艾滋病项目基线调查分析

目的 为评价第四轮全球基金艾滋病（AIDS）项目执行情况提供本底资料，并为项目计划修订和活动调整提供依据。方法 通过现有资料收集和现场调查获得项目县艾滋病疫情、高危人群规模及其危险行为特征以及防治工作现状。结果 7省76个项目县共累计报告艾滋病病毒（HIV）感染者／AIDS病人24316人，经注射吸毒传播的占74．0％，感染率高达85．1％。31个项目县发现暗娼HIV感染者，感染率最高达13．6％。结论 76个项目县HIV流行态势严峻，针对吸毒人群开展降低危害工作，对暗娼的预防干预以及对病人的治疗与目标差距很大，是项目的核心工作，需要加大工作力度。     

Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection among injecting drug users in Glasgow 1990-1996: are current harm reduction strategies working?

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of HCV antibodies among injecting drug users and to gauge the effectiveness of needle/syringe exchange in preventing the transmission of HCV infection. METHODS: Between 1990-1994 and in 1996, annual cross-sectional surveys of injecting drug users in Glasgow were conducted. In order to ensure as representative a sample as possible, the 1949 respondents were recruited from both 'in-treatment' and 'out-of treatment' settings. Injectors were interviewed about their risk behaviours for blood-borne viruses and provided a saliva sample which was initially tested, anonymously, for HIV antibodies, and subsequently tested for hepatitis C infection. RESULTS: Among 1949 injectors, the prevalence of salivary antibodies, indicative of hepatitis C viraemia, was 61%(95%, confidence interval (CI) 59%-63%): the estimated prevalence of serum antibody positivity was 72%. Length of injecting, year of commencing drug injecting and the number of times in prison were predictive of antibody positivity. Thirty-one per cent of injectors who commenced their injecting after 1992, following the full establishment of needle/syringe exchange in the city, were salivary antibody positive, and the majority of their infections were acquired outside the prison setting. Respondents who began injecting after the introduction of needle/syringe exchange in the city were significantly less likely to test HCV antibody positive than those who commenced injecting prior to the advent of needle/syringe exchange, after adjusting for length of injecting career. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of HCV among injectors in Glasgow has decreased during the era of needle/syringe exchange. However, there is evidence to suggest that the incidence of infection remains high. Since the prevalence of hepatitis C viraemia among the city's injecting population is extremely high, ongoing transmission is inevitable unless more effective interventions are identified and implemented urgently.     

Hospital- versus community-based syringe exchange: a randomized controlled trial.

This study examined the effect of syringe exchange program setting on the injection practices, health status, and health service utilization patterns of injection drug users (IDUs) recruited from a public urban hospital. One hundred sixty-six participants were randomized to either community- or hospital-based syringe exchange services. Poisson regression models were used to compare service utilization between groups. In both conditions, risky drug use practices decreased, and physical health functioning improved over time. Hospital-based syringe exchange program (SEP) attendees had 83% more inpatient admissions (p < .0001) and 22% more ambulatory care visits (p < .0001) than those assigned to the community-based SEP condition. Syringe exchange services that are integrated into public hospital settings may serve as a valuable strategy to engage hard to reach IDU populations in behavioral interventions designed to reduce HIV risk transmission behaviors and increase access to, or engagement in, the use of secondary and tertiary preventive medical care.     

Pence,Putin, Mbeki and Their HIV/AIDS-Related Crimes Against Humanity: Call for Social Justice and Behavioral Science Advocacy

Indiana, a large rural state in the Midwestern United States, suffered the worst North American HIV outbreak among injection drug users in years. The Indiana state government under former Governor and current US Vice President Mike Pence fueled the HIV outbreak by prohibiting needle/syringe exchange and failed to take substantive action once the outbreak was identified. This failure in public health policy parallels the HIV epidemics driven by oppressive drug laws in current day Russia and is reminiscent of the anti-science AIDS denialism of 1999–2007 South Africa. The argument that Russian President Putin and former South African President Mbeki should be held accountable for their AIDS policies as crimes against humanity can be extended to Vice President Pence. Social and behavioral scientists have a responsibility to inform the public of HIV prevention realities and to advocate for evidence-based public health policies to prevent future outbreaks of HIV infection.     

HIV/hepatitis C virus co-infection in drug users: risk behavior and prevention

Studies of HIV-positive patients have consistently shown that drug users, in particular injection drug users (IDU), are far more likely to have hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection than other patient groups. HIV incidence and prevalence in IDU has declined in recent years, but HCV remains endemic in this population. HCV antibody prevalence among non-injection users of drugs such as heroin and cocaine is between 5 and 30%, although there are scant data on specific transmission risk behavior. The control of HIV/HCV co-infection must address HCV prevention. Epidemiological studies have suggested that HCV prevalence in IDU is subject to various influences, some of which may be modifiable by interventions. However, studies have not shown consistent effects of various prevention strategies on HCV transmission, including studies of HCV screening and education, drug treatment or needle exchange. Although some large cross-sectional studies in regions where needle exchange is available to a large number of drug injectors have reported declining HCV prevalence, the scale of services needed is a matter of considerable debate and has not been systematically quantified. Priorities for research related to the prevention of HIV/HCV co-infection should include estimating the effect on disease occurrence of eliminating specific risk factors, and specifying the level of resources needed to alter HCV incidence.     

台州市吸毒人群HIV感染调查

目的 了解台州市吸毒人群中艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染状况，为采取干预措施提供依据。方法 对台州市戒毒所内l188名吸毒人员进行调查和血清HIV抗体检测。结果 吸毒者以无业的青年男性居多，静脉注射吸毒率34．72％。检出HIV感染者7例，HIV感染率0．59％。感染者均来自外省，均有静脉注射和共用注射嚣吸毒史。结论 台州市吸毒人群HIV感染率较低，要控制艾滋病在台州的传播蔓延，重点应放在对流动人口的管理干预上。     

Factors associated with persistent high-risk syringe sharing in the presence of an established needle exchange programme

Vancouver has experienced an explosive HIV epidemic despite the presence of a needle exchange programme (NEP). We sought possible explanations for high-risk syringe sharing among Vancouver injection drug users over the period January 1999 to October 2000. Overall, 14% of participants reported high-risk sharing. Although acquiring needles exclusively from the NEP was independently associated with less sharing, we identified several risk factors for persistent sharing, including difficulty accessing sterile needles, bingeing, and frequent cocaine injection.     

The Association Between Law Enforcement Encounters and Syringe Sharing Among IDUs on Skid Row: A Mixed Methods Analysis

The legal environment is one factor that influences injection drug users’ (IDUs) risk for HIV and other bloodborne pathogens such as hepatitis C virus (HCV). We examined the association between law enforcement encounters (i.e., arrests and citations) and receptive syringe sharing among IDUs in the context of an intensified policing effort. We conducted a mixed methods analysis of 30 qualitative and 187 quantitative interviews with IDUs accessing services at a Los Angeles, CA syringe exchange program from 2008 to 2009. Qualitative findings illustrate concerns related to visibility, drug withdrawal, and previous history of arrest/incarceration. In quantitative analysis, the number of citations received, current homelessness, and perceiving that being arrested would be a “big problem” were independently associated with recent syringe sharing. Findings illustrate some of the unintended public health consequences associated with intensified street-level policing, including risk for HIV and HCV transmission.