The Effects of Sex,Sexual Orientation,and Digit Ratio (2D:4D) on Mental Rotation Performance

In spite of the reduced level of experimental control, this large scale study brought some clarity into the relation between mental rotation task (MRT) performance and a number of variables where contradictory associations had previously been reported in the literature. Clear sex differences in MRT were observed for a sample of 134,317 men and 120,783 women, with men outperforming women. There were also MRT differences as a function of sexual orientation: heterosexual men performed better than homosexual men and homosexual women performed better than heterosexual women. Although bisexual men performed better than homosexual men but less well than heterosexual men, no significant differences were observed between bisexual and homosexual women. MRT performance in both men and women peaked in the 20-30 year range, and declined significantly and markedly thereafter. Both men and women showed a significant negative correlation between left and right digit finger ratio and MRT scores, such that individuals with smaller digit ratios (relatively longer ring finger than index finger) performed better than individuals with larger digit ratios.     

Minorities join the majority: Eating disturbances among Hispanic and native American youth

Researchers have begun to realize that disturbed eating behaviors and attitudes are not restricted to white, middle class, college-aged females. Yet investigations typically have not focused upon high school minority populations, particularly Hispanics or native Americans. This study administered the Eating Disorder Inventory and the Bulimia Test to 545 high school Hispanic, native American, and white (nonHispanic) youths. The native Americans consistently scored the highest on each of seven items representing disturbed eating behaviors and attitudes. Significant ethnic group differences were detected for binge eating when broadly defined, and for self-induced vomiting as a weight-control technique. Significant sex differences were found on four of the seven measures. Noteworthy was the dramatic difference in binge eating prevalence estimates as a consequence of the operational definition adopted. Adherence to the stricter criteria resulted in percentages for the native Americans (14.2%), Hispanics (13.1%) and nonHispanic whites (10.1%) which were much lower than those reported when the more general definition was applied. Results were discussed in terms of the need to address this rapidly growing problem among minority adolescents.     

Performance of fine motor and spatial tasks during the menstrual cycle

Various studies have shown fluctuations in task performance during the menstrual cycle. The aim of this study was to see the effects of the menstrual cycle on performing fine motor and spatial tasks of different level of complexity in twenty students aged 18 to 21 years, with regular menstrual cycle (28 to 30 days). The students performed O'Connor Finger Dexterity Test and mental rotation test during the menstrual, late follicular, and midluteal phase. Before the tests were performed, we administered Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for each phase. After the tasks were completed, the subjects ranked their difficulty on Borg's scale.The results showed the best performance in both tests in the midluteal phase (with sex hormones at their peak). The anxiety level and task difficulty ranking were the highest in the menstrual phase, when the hormone levels were the lowest.     

Relationship Between Spatial Abilities,Mental Rotation and Functional Anatomy Learning

This study investigated the relationship between visuo-spatial representation, mental rotation (MR) and functional anatomy examination results. A total of 184 students completed the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT), Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control. The time spent on personal assignment was also considered. Men were found to score better than women on both GEFT and MRT, but the gender effect was limited to the interaction with MRT ability in the anatomy learning process. Significant correlations were found between visuo-spatial, MR abilities, and anatomy examination results. Data resulting from the best students’ analyzes underscore the effect of high MR ability which may be considered reliable predictor of success in learning anatomy. The use of specific tests during learning sessions may facilitate the acquisition of anatomical knowledge.     

An Investigation of Cognitive Tempo and Its Effects on Evaluating Kindergarten Children's Academic and Social Competencies

Success in kindergarten is primarily determined by one's end of the year achievement and social competence. Although achievement can be measured objectively, social competence is determined by teachers' perceptions. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether kindergarteners with different cognitive tempos would exhibit differences in end of the year achievement and result in differences in teachers' perceptions of their social competence.

Two-hundred twenty-one kindergarten children (115 males; 106 females) participated in the study. The Matching Familiar Figures Test was administered to the children to determine whether they exhibited a reflective, impulsive, fast-accurate (F/A) or slow-inaccurate (S/l) cognitive tempo. End of the year achievement and teachers' perceptions of children's social competence was assessed using the Metropolitan Readiness Test (MRT) and the Hahnemann Elementary Behavior Rating Scale (HEBS), respectively.

Controlling for developmental level, a 4(cognitive tempo) x 2(sex) multivariate analysis of variance was performed on the 5 MRT factors and 16 (HEBS) factors. Results indicated that reflective children scored significantly higher on three of the five achievement variables and were perceived as more socially competent on eight of the 16 H EBS variables. The F/A and S/l groups fell between the other two groups but were significantly different than neither.     

Differences in self-rated health by immigrant status and language preference among Arab Americans in the Detroit Metropolitan Area

Arab Americans are a growing minority in the U.S., yet only a few studies have examined their health utilizing representative samples. Using data from the 2003 Detroit Arab American Study, which is based on a probability sample, we examined the self-rated health (SRH) of Arab Americans by two measures of acculturation – immigrant status and language preference. We specified logistic regression models to test whether immigrants report better or poorer health status compared to U.S.-born Arab Americans and whether language preference among the immigrant generation accounts for the association between immigrant status and SRH. Our findings reveal that the health status of Arab Americans improves with acculturation. Arab immigrants are more likely to report poorer SRH compared to U.S.-born Arab Americans. When language preference is taken into account, Arabic-speaking immigrants are more likely to report poorer SRH compared to both U.S.-born Arab Americans and to English-speaking immigrants. We discuss these findings in light of similar ones obtained in the literature on SRH among other immigrant groups in the U.S. We conclude by arguing that language is an important measure to include in SRH studies among Arab Americans as well as other non-English speaking ethnic groups.     

An Investigation of Cognitive Tempo and Its Effects on Evaluating Kindergarten Children's Academic and Social Competencies

Success in kindergarten is primarily determined by one's end of the year achievement and social competence. Although achievement can be measured objectively, social competence is determined by teachers’ perceptions. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether kindergarteners with different cognitive tempos would exhibit differences in end of the year achievement and result in differences in teachers’ perceptions of their social competence.

Two‐hundred twenty‐one kindergarten children (115 males; 106 females) participated in the study. The Matching Familiar Figures Test was administered to the children to determine whether they exhibited a reflective, impulsive, fast‐accurate (F/A) or slow‐inaccurate (S/l) cognitive tempo. End of the year achievement and teachers’ perceptions of children's social competence was assessed using the Metropolitan Readiness Test (MRT) and the Hahnemann Elementary Behavior Rating Scale (HEBS), respectively.

Controlling for developmental level, a 4(cognitive tempo) x 2(sex) multivariate analysis of variance was performed on the 5 MRT factors and 16 (HEBS) factors. Results indicated that reflective children scored significantly higher on three of the five achievement variables and were perceived as more socially competent on eight of the 16 H EBS variables. The F/A and S/l groups fell between the other two groups but were significantly different than neither.     

Limited English proficiency and breast and cervical cancer screening in a multiethnic population

OBJECTIVES: We examined the relationship between ability to speak English and receipt of Papanicolaou tests, clinical breast examinations, and mammography in a multiethnic group of women in the United States. METHODS: We used longitudinal data from the Study of Women Across the Nation to examine receipt of breast and cervical cancer screening among Chinese, Japanese, Hispanic, and White women who reported reading and speaking (1) only a language other than English, (2) another language more fluently than English, or (3) only English or another language and English with equal fluency. Logistic regression was used to analyze the data. RESULTS: Reading and speaking only a language other than English and reading and speaking another language more fluently than English, were significantly and negatively associated with receipt of breast and cervical cancer screening in unadjusted models. Although these findings were attenuated in adjusted models, not speaking English well or at all remained negatively associated with receipt of cancer screening. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that language barriers contribute to health disparities by impeding adequate health communication.     

Psychoneuroses among Mexican Americans and other whites: prevalence and caseness.

This paper reports the findings from an epidemiological survey conducted in California using the Health Opinion Survey (HOS), a measure of psychoneuroticism, as well as other scales and inventories. Uncontrolled results indicate that Mexican Americans have higher symptom and case levels, but that these differences are found primarily among marginally acculturated and immigrant respondents. HOS caseness levels were 15.4 for Spanish-speaking Mexican Americans, 6.6 for English-speaking Mexican Americans, and 5.5 for other Whites. Joint effects of ethnicity for sex, age, education, and marital status were substantial, however there were differences in caseness between Spanish-speaking Mexican Americans, English-speaking Mexican Americans, and other Whites on four measures of psychological distress. The results indicate the importance of acculturation-related factors, including educational attainment, language preference, and nativity for predicting symptomatology among Mexican Americans.     

Health attitudes and behaviors: comparison of Japanese and Americans of Japanese and European Ancestry

Adults living in Japan (N = 357) and the US (N = 223) completed semi-structured interviews assessing health-related attitudes and practices. The US respondents were of Japanese (N = 106) and European (N = 117) ancestry. Results indicated considerable similarity between the two US groups and significant differences between the Japanese and American respondents. The Japanese respondents placed less priority on health, had less belief in the efficacy of health screening tests, lower levels of internal health locus of control (HLOC), and higher levels of chance and powerful-others HLOC. While Japanese and Americans had similar overall levels of healthy behaviors, the Japanese were less likely to have obtained health screening tests (especially gynecologic exams). The findings have implications for adapting health promotion programs in the context of Japanese and American cultures.     

Spatial Ability and Prenatal Androgens: Meta-Analyses of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Digit Ratio (2D:4D) Studies

Hormonal manipulations indicate that early androgens organize sex differences in spatial ability in laboratory rats. In humans, spatial ability is also sexually dimorphic, and information about the effects of prenatal androgens on spatial ability can be obtained from studies of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) and the ratio of the second and fourth finger lengths (2D:4D). CAH is characterized by prenatal overproduction of adrenal androgens and several lines of evidence suggest that 2D:4D reflects prenatal androgen exposure. Some studies have found that these proxy measures of prenatal androgens predict spatial ability, others have found no significant relationship, and yet others have obtained results in the opposite direction. In light of these mixed findings, we conducted meta-analyses of published literature and unpublished results to determine if, across studies, either of these indicators of prenatal androgens predicts performance on spatial tasks that show a male advantage. In addition, we applied a trim and fill analysis to the data in search of asymmetry that might be an indication of publication bias. Results indicated that females with CAH perform better on these spatial tasks, and CAH males perform worse, than do controls. Little or no relationship exists between 2D:4D and spatial ability. Implications for possible hormonal contributions and the developmental timing of sex differences in spatial cognition are discussed.     

Sex differences in spatial visualization and episodic memory as a function of alcohol consumption

AIMS: Sex differences in visuospatial ability as well as episodic memory have been reliably demonstrated, irrespective of alcoholism. Studies in alcoholics have consistently documented cognitive deficits in visuospatial ability, problem solving and memory function. This cross-sectional, population-based study examined if sex differences in cognitive performance could be impacted by alcohol consumption. METHODS: Drinking data were collected from 2224 randomly sampled adults, aged between 35 and 85 years, who participated in the Betula study on memory, health and aging. Participants were classified into non-, light, moderate and heavy drinking subgroups based on sex-adjusted normative values. Cognitive tasks demonstrating clear sex differences, such as episodic memory tasks (favouring women) and spatial visualization tasks (favouring men), were conducted and performance was assessed by sex and the drinking group. RESULTS: After controlling for age and education, overall analyses found expected sex differences in episodic memory and spatial visualization that were apparent across the entire population. When these sex differences were examined by drinking group, visuospatial performance favouring men disappeared for the moderate to heavy drinking groups, but higher performance by women on episodic memory tasks was consistent across all levels of alcohol consumption. Traditional biomarkers of increased alcohol consumption (GGT and MCV) correlated with the reported drinks/day. CONCLUSIONS: These results lend support to the theory that moderate alcohol intake may be beneficial to cognitive function in women, but not necessarily in men.     

Japanese-American pulmonary reference values: influence of environment on anthropology and physiology

Anthropometric measurements and pulmonary function (volumes, flows, and flow-volume curves) were evaluated in a community study of 59 male and 59 female, nonsmoking, healthy Japanese-American volunteers uniformly distributed in decades from 20 to 80 years. A control group of 36 Caucasians was similarly constituted. One technologist performed all tests. Techniques and equipment matched American Thoracic Society recommendations. A cohort effect was demonstrated for anthropometric measurements in the Japanese-Americans. They were smaller and lighter than the Caucasians but taller and heavier than the Japanese of Japan. The differences from whites diminished with youth. Although the group mean volumes and flows differed little from white reference series of Crapo et al. (1981, 1982), there was a difference in the older subjects. Flow-volume curves were increased in all Japanese-Americans. Prediction equations for pulmonary function have been prepared using standing height, age, and sex. More precise formulae would need to include skinfolds, lean body weight, and span. Our Caucasians did not differ anthropometrically or in their pulmonary function from those of the mainland. In conclusion, Japanese-American anthropometry and pulmonary function in Hawaii shows a gradation from that of Japanese to Caucasians, the extent depending on the age. This is secondary to an environmental influence on anthropometry and physiology. As a consequence race-specific reference values for volumes, flows, and flow-volume curves are necessary in evaluating pulmonary function of individual Japanese-Americans.     

Driver's license and voter registration lists as population-based sampling frames for rural African Americans.

PURPOSE: To compare coverage of a state driver's license list and county voter registration lists as frames for sampling rural African Americans. METHODS: Name, birth date, sex, and county were extracted from records for all 18--59 year-old African Americans residing in eight rural North Carolina counties and listed in the North Carolina Driver license file [obtained as a SAS dataset from the University of North Carolina (UNC) Highway Safety Research Center] and in machine-readable text files of registered voters (obtained from county boards of elections). Files were edited, merged, and matched by last name and date of birth to produce three files for each five-year age group, sex, and county: 1) persons listed only in the driver's file; 2) persons listed only in the voter's file; and 3) persons listed in both. RESULTS: The median percentages of unique persons found only on the driver's list, only on the voter's list, and on both lists were 54%, 17%, and 30% men, and 35%, 25%, and 41% women, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The driver's list provided better coverage than did voter registration lists. Federal legislation that prohibits states from releasing driver's license lists for use in surveys removes a valuable resource for population-based research.     

Pregnancy outcomes of US-born and foreign-born Japanese Americans.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the birth outcomes of Japanese Americans, focusing on the role of the mother's place of birth. METHODS: Single live births to US-resident Japanese American mothers (n = 37,941) were selected from the 1983 through 1987 US linked live birth-infant death files. RESULTS: US-born mothers were more likely than foreign-born mothers to be less than 18 years old and not married, to start prenatal care early, and to more adequately use prenatal care. Infants of foreign-born Japanese Americans had a slightly lower risk of low birthweight.No significant differences were found between nativity groups for very low birthweight or neonatal, postneonatal, and infant mortality. The mortality rates of infants of US-born (6.2) and foreign-born (5.4) Japanese American women were below the US Year 2000 objective but still exceeded Japan's 1990 rate (4.6). However, low-birthweight percentages of the US-born group (5.7%) and the foreign-born group (5.0%) were similar to that of Japan (5.5%). CONCLUSIONS: The infants of foreign-born Japanese-American women exhibited modestly better low-birthweight percentages than those of US-born Japanese Americans. This finding supports theories of the healthy immigrant.     

Perspectives on gender differences in food intake and frequency of disease

Sex differences in many non-reproductive behaviors have been described in rodents and humans. Among the behaviors and responses that are sexually dimorphic in the rat are: activity, aggression, pain, and taste sensitivity, food intake and body weight regulation, learning and retention of certain kind of mazes, avoidance response, taste aversion, and performance on schedule reinforcement. In humans, similar sex differences are seen in verbal fluency, performance of spatial tasks, verbal memory tests, and fine motor skills. Depression and depressive diseases are more common in women while substance abuse and antisocial behavior is more common in men. Immunologically, the female sex is stronger, and there are clear gender differences in outcomes to same treatment modalities. This review examines the sexual dimorphism in non-reproductive behavior. Specifically gender differences in central mechanisms of food intake regulation including gender differences in hypothalamic monoaminergic systems influencing food intake.     

Development of general and central obesity from childhood into early adulthood in African American and European American males and females with a family history of cardiovascular disease

BACKGROUND: Obesity is associated with multiple health problems, often originating in childhood. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to investigate differences in the development of adiposity from childhood to adulthood as related to race, sex, and socioeconomic status (SES). DESIGN: Individual growth curve modeling for waist circumference, body mass index, and sum of skinfold thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, and suprailiac) was performed in an 11-y cohort study of 622 African Americans and European Americans aged 4.2-27.5 y. We examined the development of adiposity in 2 ways: 1) differences related to race, sex, and parents' education (SES), and 2) differences between obese, overweight, and normal-weight persons at the end of their childhood (> 17 y of age). RESULTS: The sum of skinfold thicknesses was greater in females than in males, with a larger increase with age. Race, sex, and SES showed a complex relation with body mass index and the sum of skinfold thicknesses. The low-SES group showed the fastest increase in waist circumference with age. The obese group showed the most rapid increase in the 3 measures of adiposity. Growth curves for the obese group were distinguishable from those for the normal-weight persons at an earlier age for African Americans than for European Americans. CONCLUSIONS: The development rate of adiposity from childhood into early adulthood is influenced by sex and SES but not by race. However, race, sex, and SES had joint effects on adiposity levels. The development of obesity can begin to be distinguished in midchildhood, but the age at which this distinction becomes apparent depends on race.     

Race/ethnicity and depressive symptoms: a cross-cultural/ethnic comparison among university students in East Asia,North and South America

To examine manifestations of depressive symptomatology among undergraduate students in East Asia, North and South America, responses to the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) were compared across Japanese (n = 310), Anglo-American (n = 377), Native American (n = 353), and Argentinean (n = 110) undergraduate students. Japanese reported a significantly higher level of low positive affect, leading to significantly higher total CES-D scores, whereas their negative symptoms score was comparable to scores of Anglo-Americans and Argentineans. Although Native Americans were more likely to endorse negative symptoms, their low positive affect score was comparable to those of Argentineans. Argentineans appear to suffer less from depressive symptoms. Results from a Differential Item Functioning analysis, using Anglo-Americans as the reference group, indicated that: (1) the manifestation of depressive symptoms seemed to be similar for Anglo-Americans and Argentineans, except for low positive affect; (2) Native Americans tended to favor somatic symptoms over affective (depressive) symptoms; (3) responses to positive affect questions could possibly be biased not only for Japanese but also for people in North America; i.e., the expression of positive affect might be enhanced in North American culture, while inhibited in Japanese culture.     

Substance use in high school students in New South Wales, Australia, in relation to language spoken at home.

PURPOSE: To examine for the first time adolescent substance use by ethnicity, given the high proportion of migrants from non-English-speaking countries in New South Wales, (NSW), Australia. METHODS: Data from four surveys of NSW secondary school students in 1983, 1986, 1989, and 1992 were used for this analysis. The prevalence of substance use by whether English was spoken at home was stratified by sex and age using data from the most recent survey year. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were produced by simultaneous logistic regression, adjusting for sex, age group, and the interaction term of sex and age for each of these substances, and for each survey year separately. Data from 1989 and 1992 were pooled together to examine rates of substance use by ethnic subgroups which reflect migration patterns. RESULTS: The prevalence of smoking and alcohol and illicit drug use was consistently lower among NSW adolescents speaking a language other than English at home, compared with those speaking English at home in all survey years. Only the prevalence of solvent sniffing was higher among younger adolescents speaking a language other than English at home. Students from Southeast Asia showed consistently lower rates of usage of all substances compared to all other groups. CONCLUSIONS: There may be different opportunities for the prevention of adolescent substance use among native English speakers to be gained from non-English-speaking cultures.     

Cognitive abilities of African American children with prenatal cocaine/polydrug exposure

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prenatal cocaine/polydrug exposure on cognitive abilities of school-aged children. The study examined differences in the performance of low income prenatal cocaine/polydrug-exposed and non-exposed African American children (n=49) between 6 and 8 years of age, on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition. Twenty-five children had a history of prenatal cocaine/polydrug exposure and 24 had no known history. The groups were matched for age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Test scores determined if drug exposure predicted global intelligence score and if there were significant differences between the two groups in specific areas of cognitive ability assessed. Drug exposure predicted IQ scores, as drug-exposed children performed significantly lower than their non-exposed counterparts on global intelligence and verbal comprehension, but comparably on the freedom from distractibility tasks. On individual cognitive tasks, the performances of cocaine/polydrug-exposed and non-exposed children were comparable on 8 of the 11 tasks assessed. The findings call into question earlier predictions about cocaine-exposed children.